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SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



ON THE 



PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 



METHOD OF INSTRUCTION RECENTLY ADOPTED 



in 



GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND 

JBtBlQuzXt for Schools antr gkatremfes. 



BY ROSWELL C. SMITH, 

AUTHOR OF "PRACTICAL AND MENTAL ARITHMETIC," "INTELLECTUAL 
AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR," AND "INTRODUCTORY ARITHMETIC." 



ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTIETH EDITION. 



PHILADELPHIA : 
W. MARSHALL & CO. 

NORTHWEST CORNER OF MARKET AND SEVENTH STREETS. 
1840. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by 

Perkins & Marvin, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massacnusetts 



1 J 



X»* 



PREFACE. 



The following work was composed, as is indicated by the 
title, on what is styled in Germany and Switzerland the 
" Productive System of Instruction." It is in these countries 
that the subject of Education has been deemed a matter of 
paramount importance. The art of teaching, particularly, 
has there been most ably and minutely investigated. To 
give a brief account of the different systems which have 
prevailed there, may not be irrelevant on the present occa- 
sion, as they assist in forming an opinion of the comparative 
merits of the " Productive System," on which this work is 
principally based. 

" In reference to intellectual education, the persons who were in- 
strumental in producing the reformation in schools, in the last century, 
in these countries, may be divided into four classes — the Humanists, 
Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools. 

" At the restoration of learning, in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries, the classics were brought out from the libraries of the 
cloisters in which they had been buried. As they presented the 
only examples of exalted sentiments and elevated style which the 
secular literature of the age afforded, they were regarded as the only 
means of acquiring enlarged views and a liberal education ; the 
study of them received the proud title of Humanity ; and the zealous 
and meritorious men who employed this means for the revival of 
learning, were subsequently termed Humanists. 

"The rigid Humanists maintained that ' the Greek and Latin 
authors are the only source of sound learning, whether in philosophy 
or rhetoric, in poetry or history, in medicine or law, and even in the 
elements of religion ; all has come to us from Greece and Rome.' 
' The learning of the Greek and Latin languages is the only founda- 
tion of a thorough education;' the knowledge of the grammar ought 
to precede all other knowledge ; l and philologists are the only thor- 
oughly learned men.' 

" The Humanists maintained the entire sway of the learned world 
until about the middle of the last century, when the school of the 
Philanthropists arose. Disgusted with the extravagant manner in 
which the ancient languages were extolled, they were led to examine 
into the foundations of their pretensions. While they yielded the 
palm to the ancients in all that relates to matters of taste and beauty, 
they maintained that this superiority arose from the fact, that the 
ancients derived their views directly from the inspection of nature 
and the observation of man, instead of occupying themselves, as we 
do, with the mere pictures of them drawn by others ; — they pointed 
to the obvious truth, that the world is older and vastly more experi- 
enced than it was two thousand years ago ; that in regard to all that 
relates to human knowledge, the present generation are really the 
ancients. They believed that much time was lost by the indiscrimi- 
nate and exclusive use of the classics as the foundation of education, 
which ought to be spent in acquisition of practical knowledge ; and 
that by this tedious and laborious task, without any perceptible ad- 
vantage to the pupil, they were often disgusted with every species 
of intellectual effort. They also pointed out the moral corruption 



* PREFACE. 

which arises from many of the examples and sentiments of the 
ancients, and especially disapproved that discipline of compulsion 
and violence, by which children have been forced to this ungrateful 
employment. They urged the importance of leading by the attrac- 
tion of knowledge itself, rather than by force. They paid much 
attention to the developement of the bodily constitution and powers, 
and professed to aim at forming men, and not mere scholars. 

" But, with the ordinary weakness of human nature, in avoiding 
one extreme, they ran into the opposite. They forgot the valuable 
influence of these studies, properly regulated, upon the faculties 
.and habits of the mind. 

" Notwithstanding their error, the Philanthropists unquestionably 
exerted much influence on the improvement of education. The 
extravagant views of the Humanists were considerably modified ; 
and although many still retain the exclusive maxims of their pre- 
decessors, many admit, as stated in the German l Conversations 
Lexicon,' that ' all should be embraced in education which can pro- 
mote the formation of the man, and prepare him for the eternal destiny 
of his spirit.' The Philanthropists also prepared the way for their 
successors of the School of Pestalozzi. This remarkable man adopted 
many of the opinions of his predecessors of the Philanthropic school, 
especially those which related to the developement of the bodily 
powers, and the methods of discipline, and religious instruction. 
He perceived, however, that, in assuming practical utility as the 
exclusive test of the value of particular objects of instruction, they 
had too much neglected the developement of the mind itself In seek- 
ing to avoid this error, however, he did not entirely escape the other 
extreme. He assumed, as a fundamental principle, that a certain 
developement of mind was necessary for every rank and every occu- 
pation. The means of this developement he supposed himself to 
have found, so far as the intellectual faculties were concerned, in 
the elements of form and number, which are combined in the science 
of Mathematics, in Language, and in Natural History. The Math- 
ematics appear to have assumed a preponderance in practice, which 
was unfavorable to the regular and harmonious cultivation of other 
powers. The senses and the bodily powers he endeavored to de- 
velope, in accordance with the views of the Philanthropic school, by 
the careful examination of the various objects of nature and art, which 
surround the pupil, by means of music, and by gymnastic exercises, 
alternated or combined with labor. Pestalozzi himself was remarka- 
bly the creature of powerful impulses, which were usually of the 
most mild and benevolent kind, and preserved a child-like character 
in this respect, even to old age. It was probably this temperament 
which led him to estimate at a low rate the importance of positive 
religious truth in the education of children, and to maintain that the 
mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated towards earthly parents 
and benefactors, would of course be transferred to our heavenly 
Father, whenever his character should be exhibited to the mind 
of the child. The fundamental error of this view was established 
by the unhappy experience of his own institution ; and his own ex- 
ample afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest impulses, 
not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and 
ruin, and thus defeat their own ends.* This principle, combined 

* As an example of this, it may be mentioned that, on one of those occasions (fre- 
quently occurring) on which he was reduced to extremity for want of the means of sup- 
plying his large family, he borrowed $400 from a friend for this pnrpose. In going 
nome, he met a peasant wringing his hands in despair for the loss of his cow. Pes- 
talozzi put the entin bag of money into his hands, and ran off to escape his thanks. 



PREFACE. 5 

with the want of tact in reference to the affairs of common life, 
materially impaired his powers of usefulness as a practical instructed 
of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him to 
execute his own plans ; and, according to his own system, too much 
time was employed in the profound developement of principles to 
admit of much attention to their practical application. But, as one 
of his admirers observed, he seemed destined to educate ideas and 
not children. He combated, with unshrinking boldness, and untir- 
ing perseverance, through a long life, both by his example and by 
his numerous publications, the prejudices and abases of the age, in 
reference to education. He attacked, with great vigor and no small 
degree of success, that favorite maxim of bigorry and tyranny, that 
obedience and devotion are the legitimate offspring of ignorance. 
He denounced that degrading system which considers it enough to 
enable man to procure a subsistence for himself and his offspring — 
and in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of 
the forest ; and which deems every thing lost whose value cannot be 
estimated in money. He urged upon the consciences of parents and 
of rulers, with an energy approaching that of the ancient prophets 
the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed upon them, 
in committing to their charge the present and future destinies of 
their fellow beings. In this way he produced an impulse, which 
pervaded the continent of Europe, and which, by means of his popu 
lar and theoretical works, reached the cottages of the poor and 
palaces of the great. His institution at Yverdun was crowded with 
men of every nation, not merely those who were led by the same 
benevolence which inspired him, but by the agents of kings, and 
noblemen, and public institutions, who came to make themselves 
acquainted with his principles, in order to become fellow-laborers in 
his plans of benevolence. 

" It is to these companions of his labors, most of whom resided in 
Germany or Switzerland, that we owe the formation of another 
school, which has been styled the Productive School, and which now 
predominates in Germany and Switzerland. It might, perhaps with 
equal propriety.be termed the Eclectic School; for it aims at embody- 
ing all the valuable principles of previous systems, without adhering 
slavishly to the dictates of any master, or the views of any party 
It rejects alike the idolatrous homage to the classics, which was paid 
by the Humanists — the unreasonable prejudices of the Philanthro- 
pists agaiHst classical and merelv literary pursuits — and the undue 
predilection for the mere expansion of mind, to the neglect of posi- 
tive ^knowledge and practical application, which characterized too 
many of the Pestalozzian school. 

"The leading principle of this system, is that which its name 
indicates — that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient 
of the ideas of others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and 
originating, and producing most of the ideas which are necessary for 
its education, when presented with the objects or the facts from which 
the\ may be derived. While, on the one hand, they are careful not 
to reduce the pupil to a mere machine, to be moved by the will 
of his instructor in an assigned direction, or a mass of passive mat- 
ter, to be formed by him according to his own favorite model, they 
are equally careful to avoid the extreme, into which some of the 
preceding school have fallen, of leaving him to wander indefinitely 
in a wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to him 
the merit of discovery. They consider a course of education as 
divided into two parts — the period of develop etneni and the period of 



PREFACE. 

acquisition. In the first period, which they consider as particularly 
devoted to developing the faculties and forming the habits of the mind, 
in order to prepare it as an instrument for future operations, they em- 
ploy the inductive process chiefly. Time is not here of so much 
importance as the habit of investigation and effort, which can only 
be acquired by meeting and overcoming difficulties. This period, 
which must be made longer or shorter according to the character 
of the pupil, or the necessity that his circumstances in life may im- 
pose, is succeeded by the period of acquisition, in which the mind is 
more especially called upon to exercise the powers which have been 
previously developed and cultivated, in the acquisition of such positive 
knowledge as may prepare the individual for life and action. The 
inductive process is still employed as much as possible, not only be- 
cause it has become, for many cases, the shortest and most agreeable, 
but because it is important to maintain the habits it has produced, 
and invigorate the faculties it has served to develope. 

" But still it is far less employed than previously, and the pupil 
is never suffered to waste his time in attempting to create a sci- 
ence for himself, and thus deprived of the benefit of the experience 
of sages and centuries. On the contrary, they deem his mind 
capable of being elevated even more rapidly by following the pro- 
cesses of patient investigation, by which the most exalted minds 
have arrived at results that astonish and delight him, and of thus 
learning to imitate strides, which seem to him like those of a giant, 
and to cultivate those habits of untiring attention, which the greatest 
philosophers have declared to be the principal source of that telescopic 
glance, that almost unerring power of discrimination, which seems 
to others so nearly miraculous. 

" Such is the Productive System, by which the powers of the 
pupil are called into complete exercise by requiring him to attempt 
a task unaided, and then assisting him in correcting his own errors, 
or returning from his own wanderings, before he is discouraged by 
the waste of time and the fruitlessness of his efforts. They distin- 
guish carefully between knowledge and the means of obtaining it. 
To cultivate the senses, and present the objects which they are capa- 
ble of examining, is to open to the child the sources of knowledge — 
to place before him a book which is ever open, and in which he may 
every moment read. This, they maintain, is the first and most 
obvious part of education, according to the dictates of common sense. 
It is one in which nothing but truth is presented to him, and which, 
by calling his powers into constant exercise, ensures their improve- 
ment, and cultivates a spirit of investigation/' 

The preceding extracts are taken from Art. I. Vol. I. 
No. VI. of the American Journal of Education, New Series. 
The author avails himself of this opportunity to express his 
obligations to the conductors of this valuable periodical. A 
constant perusal of its pages has afforded him many valuable 
ideas on the subject of education, and he cheerfully ac- 
knowledges material assistance derived from it in the prepa- 
ration of the " Productive System of English Grammar, " 
which is now respectfully submitted to the candid examina- 
tion of the public. • 

THE AUTHOR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



I. OF THE NOUN. 



Q. What is your name ? 

Q. What is the name of the town in which you live ? 

Q. What does the word noun mean ? 

Ans. The word noun means name. 

Q. What, then, may your name be called ? 

1. A NOUN. 

Q. What may all names be called ? 

2. Nouns. 

Q. Boston is the name of a place : is Boston a noun ? and if so, wny ? 

3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name. 

Q. Hudson is the name of a river : is Hudson a noun, and why ? 

Q. i?0o& is the name of something to read in : is book a noun, and why 1 

Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is ? 

4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 

Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names 
of things ? two, the names of different places ? 

Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sentences, 
as I read them to you ? 

" Thomas and Joseph are in the house." 

" The horse and cow are in the lot." 

" The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." 

" Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields." 



II. NUMBER. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word number ; as, " The number of but- 
tons on your coat" ? 

5. Number means a sum that may be counted. 

Q. What does the word singular mean ? 

6. It means one. 

Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it ? 

7. Singular number. 

Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote ? 

8. The singular number denotes but one thing. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q Of what number is book, and why ? 

9. Book is of the singular number, because it means 
but one. 

Q. Of what number is chair, and why ? 
Q. What does the word plural mean ? 

10. It means more than one. 

Q. Of what number is lamps, and why ? 

11. Lamps is of the plural number, because it means 
more than one. 

Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why ? 

Q. By adding s to dtft*, we have doves, and es to box, we have boxes. 
How, then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 

12. By adding 5 or es to the singular. 

Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ? glass ? window ? theatre ? antece- 
dejit 1 church 1 labyrinth ? 

Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

13. Two, the singular and plural. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number ? one of the plural 
number 1 



III. GENDER. 

Q. What does the word gender mean ? 

14. Gender signifies sex. 

Q. What does the word masculine mean ? 

15. It means male. 

Q. John is the name of a male : of what gender or sex, then, is John ? 

16. Of the masculine or male gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender 1 

17. The names of males. 

Q. What gender, then, is man, and why ? 

18. Man is of "the masculine gender, because it is 
the name of a male. 

Q. Of what gender is uncle, and why ? fatlier ? why ? 
Q. What does feminine mean 1 

19. It means female. 

Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan 1 

20. Of the feminine gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender ? 

21. The names of females. 

Q. What gender is woman, and why ? 

22. Woman is of the feminine gender, because it is 
the name of a female. 

Q. Of what gender is aunt, and why? daughter? why? 
Q. What Joes the word neuter mean ? 

23. It means neither. 

Q. Chair is the name neither of a male nor a female : what gender, then, 

may it properly be called? 

24. Neuter gender. 

Q. Whai no mis, then, may be said to be of the neuter ■ 



NOUNS. D 

25. The names of objects that are neither males nor 
females. 

Q. *Of what gender is inkstand, and why ? 

26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither 
of a male nor female. 

Q. Of what gender is bench ? why ? chair ? why ? 

,Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it is 
a name common to both : of what gender, then, shall we call such nouns as 
parent, bird, &c. ? 

27. Common gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender ? 

28. The names of such animals as may be either 
males or females. 

Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why ? 

29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is 
the name either of a male or female. 

Q. Of what gender is robin, and why ? 

Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

30. Four — the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, 
and the common. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender ? one of the feminine 7 
one of the neuter 1 one of the common ? 

Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following 
sentences, as I read them to you ? 

" James and William." " Slate and pencil." 
" John and the girls." " Women and birds." 



IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word common; as, "A common com- 
plaint" ? 

3 1 . Common means general. 

Q. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each one 
may be called by the general name of boy : what kind of a noun, tlien, would 

you call boy? 

32. A common noun. 

Q. When, then, is a noun called common ? 

33. When it is a general name. 

Q. What does the word proper mean ? 

34. It means Jit or particular. 

Q. John, you know, is the particular name of a boy i what kind of a noun, 
then, may it be called ? 

35. A proper noun. 

Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper ? 

36. When it is a particular name. 

What kind of a noun is Susan, and why ? 

. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particu- 
lar name. 

iiu of a noun is John, and why ? 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What kind of a noun is river, and why 1 

38. River is a common noun, because it is a gene- 
ral name. 

Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

Q. What kind of a noun is girls ? Mary ? town ? New York ? London ? 
boat ? i hain ? 

Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- 
tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number ? 

"Thomas and John." " King and queen." 

" Susan and Mary." " House and barn." 



V. PERSON. 

Q. When a person, in speaking, says, " I, John, will do it," what person 
d( grammarians call John ? 

39. The first person. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person ? 

40. When it is the name of the person speaking. 

Q. When I say, " James, mind your studies," what person do grammarians 
call James ? 

41. The second person, being the person spoken to. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person 1 

42. When it is the name of the person spoken to, 
or addressed. 

Q. " William, James has come." What person is William, and why ? 

43. Of the second person, because William is spoken 
to. 

Q. When I say, " William, James has come." I am speaking to William 
about James : of what person, then, is James, ana why 1 

44. Of the third person, because James was spoken 
of; that is, I was talking about James. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person 1 

45. When it is spoken of. 

Q. " Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is Thomas ? why t 
Is Rufus ? why 1 

Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

46. Three persons — the first, second, and third. 

Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which 
common ; also their gender, number, and person 1 

" I, James, of Boston." " Boy and girl." 

" Henry, study your book." " William and his sister. 



VI. CASE. 

Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He is 
in a good case" ; and. when he is lean, that " He is in a bad case" : what, 
therefore, does the word case mean ? 

47. Case means condition, state, &c. 



CASES. 11 

<$. When I say, " Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles," 
you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former example 
is guite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, Charles 
strikes 3 in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the different cases 
of nouns ? 

48. The different condition or position they have in 
relation to other words in the same sentence. 

Q. What does the word nominative mean ? 

49. Nominative means naming. • 

Q. When I say, " John strikes/ 7 he evidently does something : what, then, 
may John be called ? 

50. An actor or doer. 

Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading 
noun, in what case is John, when I say, " John strikes" ? 

51. In the nominative case. 

Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns ? 

52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. 

Q. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ? 

53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the 
agent, actor, or doer. 

Q. " The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why ? 
Q. When I say, " Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object here 
which Thomas is pursuing 1 

54. Thief. 

Q. What does the word objective mean ? 

55. It means belonging to the object. 

Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, " Thomas 
pursues the thief" 7 

56. In the objective case. 

Q. What, then, does the objective case denote ? 

57. The objective case denotes the object. 

Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what case is John, and why ? 

58. In the objective case, because John is the ob- 
ject. 

Q. What does the word possessive imply ? 

59. Possession, ownership, property, &c. 

Q. When I say, " It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the 
slate : in what case, then, shall we reckon John's ? 

60. In the possessive case. 

Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote ? 

61. The possessive case denotes possession, prop- 
erty, &c. 

Q. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife ? 
Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why 1 

62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses 
the knife. 

Q. In the example "John's slate," you perceive that John's ends in s, with 
a comma before it : what is the comma, ana what is the s, called in grammar 7 

63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the s, 
an apostrophic s. 

Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the 
ar number usually form their possessive case? 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the 
letter s following it. 

Q. "On eagles' wings." Here eagles' is plural, and in the possessive 
case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form tneir possessive case ? 

65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the 
addition of s. 

Q. But if the plural noun does not end in s, as, u men's concerns," how is 
the possessive case formed ? 

66. As the same case in the singular number is 
formed. 

Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to have, 
and what are they ? 

67. Three — the nominative, possessive and objec- 
tive. 

Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word: what, then, 
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 

68. To tell its different cases or endings. 

Q. Will you decline John ? 

69. Nominative case, John. 
Possessive case, John's. 
Objective case, John. 

Q. Will you decline boy, in both numbers ? 

Singular. Plural. 

70. Nom. Boy. Nom. Boys. 

Poss. Boy's. Poss. Boys'. 

Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys. 

Q. When I say " William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat follows 
William's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why ? 

71. By coat, because it follow? William's. 

Q. What, then, may be considered a ruic for governing the possessive 
case? 

RULE I. 

The possessive case is governed by the following 

noun. 

Q. " William's hat." Is William's a proper or common noun ? Why ? 
(36.)* 

Q. What is its person ? why? (45.)* Its number? why? (8.)* Its gen- 
der? why? (17.) # Its case? why? (61.)* What noun follows William's? 
What word, then, governs William's ? What is the rule ? 

Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in sen- 
tences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what is the 
exercise called ? 

72. Parsing. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" John's knife." 

73. John's is a noun, because it is a name — proper, be- 
cause it is a particular name — masculine gender ; it is the 
name of a male — third person ; it is spoken of— singular 

* Refer back to this number. 



ARTICLES. 13 

number ; it means but one — possessive case ; it implies 
possession — and it is governed by the noun knife, accord- 
ing to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Knife is a noun; it is a name — common; it is a general 
name — neuter gender; it is neither male nor female — 
third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means 
but one. 

(O^ Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing the 
noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily , without looking in 
the book. He may then take the following exercises, which are to be 
parsed in a similar manner. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" Peter's cap." " Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife." 
* John's slate." " Father's house." " Boys' hats." 



VII. OF ARTICLES. 

Q. When I say, " Give me a book/' I evidently mean no particular boek ; 
but when I say, " Give me the book/' what do I mean ? 

74. Some particular book. 

Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning ? 

75. A and the. 

Q. What are these little words called ? 

76. Articles. 

Q. What, then, are articles ? 

77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning. 

Q. What is the meaning" of the word definite ? 

78. Definite means particular. 

Q. u Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to « what 
kind of an article, then, shall we call tlie ? 

79. Definite article. 

Q. What, then, is a definite article ? 

80. It points out what particular thing or things are 
meant. 

Q. The word in, when placed before wopds, frequently signifies not ; what, 
then, will indefinite mean ? 

81. Not definite. 

Q. When I say, " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant : what 
kind of an article, then, may a be called ? 

82. Indefinite article. 

Q. Why is it so called ? 

83. Because it is not used before the name of any 
particular person or thing. 

2 B 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. We say "an apple," '"an inkstand/' &c. in preference to "a apple/' 
"a inkstand," &e. : why is this ? 

84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more 
pleasant to the ear. 

Q. What kind of letters do apple and inkstand begin with ? 

85. Vowels. 

Q. In what cases do we use an instead of a ? 

86. Before words beginning with the vowels a, e, i, 
o, u. 

Q. In speaking, we say, u a man," not " an man" ; when, then, do we 
use a ? 

87. Before words beginning with consonants. 

Q. Which letters are consonants 1 

88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vow- 
els, which are a, e, i, o, u; and also w and y, except 
at the beginning of words, when they are consonants. 

Q. How, then, do a and an differ ? 

89. Only in their use ; a being used before conso- 
nants, and an before vowels : both are called by the 
same name. 

Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

90. Two — a or an, and the. 

Q. It is customary to say, " a boy," not " a boys" ; also, " an inkstand," 
not " an inkstands" : of what number, then, must the noun be, before wliich 
the indefinite article is placed ? 

91. The singular number. 

Q. What, then, is the rule for the indefinite article ? 
RUXiE II. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

Q. We can say, " the boy," and " the boys" ; using a noun either of the 
singular or plural number after the : what, then, is the rule for the definite 
article 1 

RUI.X2 III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns in the 
singular or plural number. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The hoy:' 

92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to 
limit their meaning — definite ; it means a particular boy — 
and belongs to hoy, according to 

Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number. 

Boy is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third 
person ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it means 
but one. 



ADJECTIVES. 15 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

"A hand." "An eagle." " The man." " The boys' hats." 

"A man." "An insect." "The men." " A man's cap." 

"Amite." "An acorn." " The boys." "The girls' room." 

"A month." "An ounce." " The mice." " The lady's box." 



VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. 

Q. When I say, " John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy," I uso 
certain words to describe boy : which are they ? 

93. Industrious , obedient, and good. 

Q. When I say, " a good man," to what wbrd is the describing word good 
joined or added ? 

94. To the noun man. 

Q. What does the word adjective mean ? 

95. Joined or added to. 

Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as good, ebedietU, in~ 
dustrious, &c. 1 

96. Adjectives. 

Q. What, then, are adjectives ? 

97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe 
or qualify them. 

Q. " A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why 1 
Q. " Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." How are Rufus 
and James spoken of here ? 

98. In comparison with each other. 

Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and better : can you tell 
me which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the other ? 

99. The word better. 

Q. WTiat degree of comparison, then, shall we call better ? 

100. Comparative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply? 

101. A comparison between two. 

Q. " William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest boy in school." 
What is meant here by tallest ? 

102. Exceeding all in height. 

Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 

103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree. 

Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest ? 

104. Superlative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do ? 

105. It increases or lessens the positive to the high- 
est or lowest degree. 

Q. When I say, " James is a good boy," I make no comparison between 
him and any other ; but simply assert, in a positive manner, that James is a 
good boy. What kind of a sentence, then, would you call this 7 

106. A positive sentence. 

Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shaH we call good ? 

107. The positive degree. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What; then, does the positive degree do ? 

108. It merely describes, without any comparison. 

Q. Will you compare great ? 

109. "Positive, greftt; Comparative, greater; Su- 
perlative, greatest." 

Q. Will you compare wise in the same manner ? 

Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable : how, then, are the com 
parative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed ? 

110. By adding r or er, st or est, to the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare small ? high ? mean ? 
Q. Will you compare beautiful ? 

111. " Pos. beautiful; Comp. more beautiful; Sup. 
most beautiful." 

Q. How many syllables compose the word beautiful ? 

112. Three! 

Q. How, then, are words of three, or more syllables than one, usually 
compared ? 

113. By placing more and most before the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare industrious ? ingenious ? dutiful ? 
Q. Will you compare ivise, by using the words less and least ? 

114. " Pos. wise ; Comp. less wise ; Sup. least wise." 

Q. Will you in like manner compare benevolent ? distinguished ? dilatory ? 

Q. " Good men, better men, best men. ;; Which adjective here is the posi- 
tive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative? why? (101.) Which the 
superlative? why? (105.) 

Q. Goody you perceive, is not compared regularly, like great, beautiful, 
&c. ; and since there are many words of this description, I will give you a list 
of the principal ones, together with others, regularly compared : will you re- 
peat the comparative and superlative degrees, as I name the positive ? 

115. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, Better, Best. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Much, or many, More, Most. 

Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst. 

Near, Nearer, Nearest, or next. 

Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest. 

Late, Later, Latest, or last. 

Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there appear 
to be, and what are they ? 

11.6. Three — the positive, comparative, and super- 
lative. 

Q. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nomas : to what, then, do they natu- 
rally belong ? 

RUIiE XV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. I 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" A wiser child." 

117. A is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning — indefinite ; it means no particular child — 
and belongs to child, agreeably to 

Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 






PRONOUNS. l7 

third person; it is spoken of— and singular n 
means but one. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

« A dutiful son." " An ugj child » 5) "ffiS^i." 
« An idle boy." " An irksome task. 1 he wnu „ 

* A foolish son." " A mild reply.'' i he rauae 

, The greatettman.;; ^S^SS^S? 

a >scnolar> ' ' "Murray's small grammar." 
IX. OF PRONOUNS. 

O \Vl.cn I sav, " John goes to school, John learns fast ami John will ex- 
cel ?how ean I sp^'ak so aslo avoid repeating John .so ■»««»' a , fc 

118. By using the word he in its place thus John 
goes to school,! learns fast and he will excel. 

Q What little word, then, may stand for John t 

119. He. 

Q What does the word pronoun mean I 

120. Standing for, or instead of, a noun. 

Q. What, then, shall we call the word he, above ! 
12*1. A PRONOUN. 

&T A pTonou P nT a word used for a noun, to avoid 

* !3RffiKf £ W J^gj P— that , ^s * the 

«*s w^^r^«| ^VA^T„ d he? y is ap - 

plied to Jbmeff, who is spoken to : what person, men. u b 

123. The second person. - - 

" : — 7- ~T a Tnhn«&a is governed by cKctfononr, bv 

1. To be omitted m parsing. ?. Jonnscws is s j 

Rule T. 



16 

KNGLISH GRAMMAR. 

*e to Q be) and"^'* " He < meanin S Wilham, should learn/' what person ought 

Q WhXi,t Pronouns themselves. P 

|f i>eZS e p n r„r ca!,ed from this *•*-"* 

MCLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

127. s; m F1RST PEKS0N - 

Norn. I. *' P/«r. ' 

Poss. My or mine. ^ e - 

Obj. Me. Uurs " r our- 

Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Mm. Thou or you v Plur - 

£m THIRD PERS ° N MA SCULINE. 

Mw*. He. ^' -Ww. 

fw His. ^ he y- 

Obj. Him. Theirs or (heir 

Them. 

THIRD PERSON FEMININE 

king. ' n * 

Norn. She. _,, Plur - 

Poss. Hers or her. ^h^' 

£%'. Her. l heiKS or their. 

Them. 

THIRD PERSON NEUTER. 

Mw». It. %ng% p hr. 

Poss. its. £ h ey. 

Obj. It. 1 heir s or their. 

q.- Kr pe tt; e „^tr^v^A"^ **> « - 

h<r?hll? Send0t ' person ' •*■*-> *"<» case is fef Mef ft? Afc? **, 

objective ree ^ tbe nominative '.th« possessive, and the 






I 



PRONOUNS. 19 

Q. How many persons ? 

130. Three — the first, second, and third. 

Q. How many genders ? 

131. Three — the masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person 1 
Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third ? 
Q. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading pro 
nouns : how many of these are there ? 

133. Five — I, thou or you, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular and 
plural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the 
leading pronouns ? 

134. Because they are all considered as variations 
of the nominative singular. 

Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender ? 

135. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre- 
sent a different gender ? 

136. The first and second persons being always 
present, their genders are supposed to be known. 

Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, 
and person ought they to have ? 

137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. 

Q. What 7 then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro- 
nouns ? 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand, in gender, number, and person. 

QUESTIONS ON PARSING. 

Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what are 
they 1 

138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, 
and the Pronoun. 

Q. The word part, you know, means division ; and speech, the power of 
using words, or language : what, therefore, shall we call these grand divisions 
of words ? 

139. Parts of Speech. 

Q. When, then, I ask you what part of speech boy is, for instance, what 
do you understand me to mean 1 

140. The same as to ask me whether boy is a noun 
or not. 

Q. What part of speech, then, is William, and why ? (36.) 

1. "He went to school." 

2. " She went to her task." 

3. " William went to his play." 

4. " John returned from his school." 

5. " I request you to mind your studies." 

6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours." 

Q. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples ? 
Q. How many are there in all ? 

Q. What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first ? second ? 
third? fourth? fifth? sixth 1 



nn 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




X. OF THE VERB. 

Joeft Whe " l ™ y ' " JameS Strikes *™«V' which word ,cl.s what James 
141. >o tvtJcp ? 

ferentname? 5 a senten ce rerfo, and others by a dif- 

imjoftan? 6 ^ ^ WG CaH Verbs are the most 

wh Q. "WiHiam studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and 

144 Studies because it tells what William does 

is performed ? *' kes John ' which word shows that an action 

145. Strikes. 

Q. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call strife* t 

140. An active verb. 

nh Q. What kind of a verb is «Wfe, in this sentence; „ Jo|m ^^ ^ 

action! ^^ ^ ^ aCtiVG Verb ' because h *&fc 

age^o;'an e obje a ct7 i,,iam -" W « word here is the verb ? Is WilHa m an 

148. An object. 

tef^JL&^^^fetlltS is £**■—-»» «* 

thercan we supply one; fo^i C-fe" ^ phrase above ; nei- 
what, ther f re, is I be interred fromtiS, u^lt^ «£ 

149 That some active verbs will take nouns after 
them for objects, and others will not. 

150. An active-transitive verb. 

?r i Wh T t; the " ; iS a " active " tran sitive verb ? 

ject afterit! P "® *? either haS ' ° r ma y ^ a » <*- 

Q. Walks,- we found, would not take an obiect after it • ™h .. ■ , 
fee, means „„; p ,„ ?I > ( , m . e „ what shn „ we " a nCh^ h sLA7? "^ 



VERBS. 21 

152. Active-intransitive verbs. 

Q. What, then, is an active-intransitive v rb ? 

153. An active-intransitive veib is one that expresses 
action, but will not take an object after it. 

Q. When I say, u He eats it," " He beats him," we immediately deter- 
mine that beats and eats are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after them 
how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished ? 

154. When we can place him or it after any active 
verb, and make sense, it is transitive ; otherwise, it is 
intransitive. 

Q. "James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which 
words are the verbs here ? 

155. Remains, sleeps, and is. 

Q. These verbs do not imply action, like strikes, beats, &c. : what do they 
imply? 

156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. 

Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter 
(signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor pas- 
sive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a passive 
verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason of 
the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 

157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being 
or existence in a certain state. 

Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct definition 
of a verb ? 

158. A verb is a word which signifies action or 

BEING. 

Q. When I say, " I strike," in what number and person is strike, and why ? 

159. Strike is of the first person singular, because 
its agent, i, is of this person and number. 

Q. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves considered, do not 
have person and number : why, then, are they said to have these properties at 
all? 

160. On account of the connection which they have 
with their agents or nominatives. 

Q. We say, " I write," and " He writes" j hence you perceive that the 
ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, will 
■be the rule for the nominative case ? 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in numbe? 

and person. 

Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in wha. 
respect must the verb agree with its nominative case ? 

rule yn. 
A verb must agree with its nominative case in 

number and person. 

Q. When I say, " James beats him," the pronoun him is the object of 
the action denoted by beats, and is, therefore, in the objective case : what 
then, wiil be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? 

RULE VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. I will now give you the different endings of the verb love, in its different 
numbers and persons. Will you repeat them ? 

Singular. Plural. 

161. First person, Hove. First person, We love. 
Second person, You love. Second person. You love 
Third person, He loves. Third person, They love. 

Q. Will you repeat the variations of am ? 

Singular. Plural. 

162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are. 

2 Pers. You are. 2 Pers. You are. 

3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They are. 

Q. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations of hate ? desire ? read t 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" 1 study my lesson" 

163. 2" is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- 
sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first 
person ; . it denotes the speaker — singular number ; it 
means but one — " Norn. I " — made in the nominative case 
to study, according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num- 
ber and person. 

Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it ad- 
mits an object after it — "1 Pers. I study" — made in the 
ftrst person — singular number, because its nominative I 
is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

'Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

My is a pronoun, a word used for a noun — personal ; it 
always represents the same person — first person ; it repre- 
sents the person speaking — "Norn. I ; Poss. my, or mine" — 
made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun 
lesson, according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neu- 
ter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person ; 
it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and 
in the objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, 
and governed by it, according to 

Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 
case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

Transitive Verbs. 
" I lament my fate." " He found a dollar." 

" You regard your friends." " She attends the school." 

" We desire your improvement." " It retards the work." 
" We love our children." " They shun vice." 

* You make a knife," " Ye derive comfort." 



VERBS. 23 

2. 

" I love him." " She forsook you." 

" I lament her." " They annoy me." 

" You assist them." " We took it." 

u He struck her." " She relieved us." 

" John reads his book." 
His is a pronoun, a ward used instead of a noun — per- 
sonal ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine 

GENDER, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, because the 

noun John is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 

they stand, in gender, number, and person, 

" Norn, he ; Poss. his" — made in the possessive case — 

and governed by the noun book, according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 

noun. 

§£r The remaining words, book, reads, and John, are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
3. 

" Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewards its followers." 

" The girls love their books." tt A disobedient son grieves his 
"Good children mind their parents." 

parents." "The intemperate man loves his 
" Sin deceives its votaries." dram." 

ftCf In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for 
which they stand are expressed. 

Intransitive Verbs. 
4. 

" I walk." " You smile." " John swims." 

"James runs." "They wink." "Birds fly." 

" William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar." 

Neuter Verbs. 
" William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate." 
" James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." 

" He was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden." 

" He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." 
" Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is sufficient." 



XI. INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. 

Q. When James says, " I will learn," he evidently means, by his manner 
of speaking to express his intention to learn ; but when he says, " I can learn/' 
what does he mean ? 

(1.) Is is a verb j it implies being — neuter } it is neither active nor pas- 
sive, but expresses being, merely—" 1 pers. I am ; 2 pers. You are ; 3 pers. He, 
or William is " — made in the third person, singular, because William, its 
nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. 

(2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

165. That he has the ability to learn. 

Q. What does the word mood mean ? 

166. Mood means manner. 

Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote 7 

167. The different manner of representing actions 

Q. What does the word indicative mean ? 

168. Declaring or showing. 

Q. When I say, " William has studied," 1 declare some fact i in what 
mood, then, shall we class lias studied ? 

169. In the indicative mood. 

Q. When I say, " Has William studied ?" the only difference between this 
phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, so as 
to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call Jias Wil- 
liam studied ? 

170. Indicative mood. 

Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for 1 

171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, in- 
dicating or declaring a thing, or asking a question. 

Q. In what mood is " They do sing" ? Why ? (171.) 
Q. What does the word tense mean ? 

172. Tense means time. 

Q. What does present mean ? 

173. Present means now. 

Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sings now i in 
what tense, then, is si?igs ? 

174. In the present tense. 

Q. What, then, is the present tense used for ? 

175. The present tense is used to express what is 
now taking place. 

Q. In what tense is " The dog runs" ? Why ? (175.) 
Q. u James wrote." '?■ James has written." These phrases denote what 
is past : in what tense are they ? 

176. In the past tense. 

Q. What does the word future mean ; as, " At some future time" 1 

111. Future means yet to come. 

Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come" ? 

178. In the future tense. 

Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what 
are they 1 

179. Three — the present, past, and future. 

Q. When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and 
finished ? < 

180. It is. 

Q. What does imperfect mean ? 

181. Unfinished, or incomplete. _ 

Q. "John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action un- 
finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in 
Latin the imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected bv English 
grammarians to denote action past and finished ; a term not all significant of 
an action finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express ? 

182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place 
in past time, however distant. 

Q. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts o 



VERIJS. 25 

writing are past and finished 3 but which has more immediate reference to the 
present time ? 

183. Has written. 

Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called 
it the perfect tense : what, then, will the perfect tense express 1 

184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken 
place, and also conveys an allusion to the present 
time. 

Q. " James had read before I wrote." Here, both acts are past and 

finished ; but which took place first ? 

185. The act of reading. 

Q. What does the word ■pluperfect mean 1 

186. More than the perfect. 

Q. What tense, then, shall we call " James had read" ? 

187. The pluperfect tense. 

Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express ? 

1S8. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken 
place at or before some past time mentioned. 

Q. " John will come." This, you know, was called the future tense 1 can 
you tell me why ? 

189. Because it implies time to come. 

Q. What, then, does the future tense express 1 

190. The future tense expresses what will take 
place hereafter. 

Q. u I shall have learned my lesson by noon." Here, an action rs to take 
place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already have one 
future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future tense : what, 
then, will the second future tense express ? 

191. The second future expresses what will have 
taken place at or before some future time mentioned. 

Q. What does synopsis mean 1 

192. A concise and general view. 

Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the different tenses, illus- 
trated by the verb learn: will you repeat it ? 

SYNOPSIS. 

193. Pres. tense, I learn, or do learn. 

Imp. tense, I learned, or did learn. 

Per/, tense, I have learned. 

Plup. tense, I had learned. 

1st Fut. tense, 1 shall or will learn. 

2d Fid. tense, I shall have learned. 

fO 3 You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing 1 verb, in 
each tense of the indicative mood : these I wish you to study very carefully, 
that you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you 

194. To learn. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Pers I learn. 1 Pers. We learn. 

2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers. You learn. 

3 Pers. He, she, or it learns. 3 Pers. They learn. 

3 c 



26 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OR. 





When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus — 




Singular, 


Plural. 


1 


I do learn. 


1. We do learn. 


2. 


You do learn. 


2 You do learn. 


3. 


He does learn. 


3. They do learn. 




IMPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular . 


Plural. 


1. 


I learned. 


1. We learned. 


2. 


You learned. 


2. Y'ou learned. 


3. 


He learned. 


3. They learned. 
OR, 

Plural. 




Singular. 


1. 


I did learn. 


1. We did learn. 


2. 


You did learn. 


2. Y"ou did learn. 


3. 


He did learn. 


3. They did learn. 




PERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural 


1. 


I have learned. 


1. We have learned. 


2. 


You have learned. 


2. You have learned. 


3. 


He has learned. 


3. They have learned. 




PLUFERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I had learned. 


1. We had learned 


2. 


You had learned. 


2. You had learned. 


3. 


He had learned. 


3. They had learned. 




FIRST 


FUTURE TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I shall or will learn. 


1. We shall or will learn. 


2. 


You shall or will learn. 


2. You shall or will learn. 


3. 


He shall or will learn. 


3. They shall or will learn 




SECOND 


FUTURE TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


I. 


I shall have learned. 


1. We shall have learned. 


2. 


Y r ou will have learned. 


2. You will have learned. 


3. 


He will have learned. 


3. They will have learned. 



* # * For the benefit of these who choose to retain the second person singu- 
lar, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. 

SYNOPSIS. 

195. 2d Pers. Sing, Pres. Thou learnest, or dost learn. 
2d Pers. Sing. Imp. Thou learnedst, or didst learn. 
2d Pers. Sing. Perf. Thou hast learned. 
2d Pers. Sing. Plup. Thou hadst learned. 
2d Peis. Sing. 1st Fut. Thou shalt or wilt learn. 
2d Pers. Sing. 2d Fut. Thou wilt have learned. 



Q. In what mood is " I learn" ? Why ? (171.) 
(175.) In what mood and tense is "He learns" 1 
learn ,; ? " I have learned" ? " I had learned" ? 
" I shall have learned" ? 

Q. In what person and number is " I learn" ? 
learn" 1 " They had learned" ? " He shall learn" ? 

Q. What does the word auxiliary mean ? 

196. Auxiliary means helping. 



In what tense ? Why ? 

" We learn" ? " I did 

" I shall or will learn" ? 

"You learn"? "We 
"We had learned"? 



VERBS. 27 

Q. In the phrase, " I will singy v will, you perceive, is used to help 
form the future tense of sins; : will is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and 
the verb sing is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs ? 

197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which 
are formed the different tenses, moods, &c. of the 
principal verbs. 

Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the 
tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itself' 
what, then, is the sign of the second future ? 

198. Shall or will have. 

Q. What is tl*e sig-n of the first future 1 

199. Shall or will. 

Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect 1 

200. Had. 

Q. What is the sign of the perfect ? 

201. Have. " 

Q. What is the sign of the imperfect 1 

202. Did. 

Q. We can say, " T did strike yesterday," or, u I struck yesterday" ? how, 
then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ? 

203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and 
make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. 

Q. What is the sign of the present tense ? 

204. Do, or the first form of the verb. 

Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear 
to have, and what are they ? 

205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" They have arrived." 

206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— 
personal ; it always represents the same person— third 
person ; it denotes the persons spoken of — plural ; it 
means more than one — " Nom. he; Toss, his; Obj. him. 
Plural, Nom. they" — made in the nominative case to 
have arrived, according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or 
being — active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does 
not admit of an object — indicative mood ; it simply indi- 
cates or declares a thing — perfect tense ; it expresses 
what has just taken place — ;4 1. I have arrived ; 2. You 
have arrived; 3. He has arrived. Plural, 1. We have ar- 
rived ; 2. You have arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — made 
in the third person plural, because its nominative they is, 
and agrees with it, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
1. 

" They had come." " The sun has risen." 

« We did go." " Dogs will fight." 

" The bird will return." " Lions will roar." 

2. 
" James loves William." " Columbus discovered America." 

" Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." 

" I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson." 

" She had beaten us." "John did make great progress." 

" You shall assist him." "They do study their lessons." 

" It did disturb me." " Boys love sport." 

3. 
" Do I disturb you r" >uall I expect your assist- 

" Did they learn their lesson-; .* ance ?" 

" Ha7e they recited ?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit 

" Does the instructor teach us ?" such (1.) acts ?" 

"Had he dismissed him?" "Have you found your knife ?" 



XII. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Q. What does u He may write" imply ? 

207. Permission or liberty to write. 

Q. What does " He must write" imply 1 

208. Necessity of writing. 

Q. What does " He can write" imply ? 

209. Power or ability to write. 

Q. What does " He should write" imply ? 

210. Duty or obligation to write. 

Q. What does " He would write" imply ? 

211. Will or inclination to write. 

Q. What does ihe word potential mean ? 

212. Able, or powerful. 

Q. In whafmood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write, and 
also must write, should write, &c. ? 

213. In the potential mood. 

Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered to 
do in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that form 
of the verb which implies power ? 

214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and 
almost numberless extent. 

Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply 1 

215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, obligation, or necessity. 

Q. What are the signs of this mood 1 

216. May, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

Q. What does the word conjugation mean ? 
(1.) Adjective 



VERBS. 29 

217. Uniting, combining, ox joining together. 

Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we joined the pronouns with it; 
hence this exercise is called conjugation : what, then, do you understand by 
the conjugation of a verb ? 

218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, 
numbers and persons. 

219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn. 

2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 

3. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

3. He might, could, woula or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou. 

220: 

Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must learn. 

Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. 

Per/. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned. 

Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned. 

Q. In what mood is " I may learn' 7 1 Why ? (215.) 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with I? thou? he? ive ? ye? you? they? 

Q. In what mood, tense, number and person, is " I can learn" 1 tm . You 
may learn" ? " You might assist" 1 " They could have learned" ? " He 
must study" ? 

Q. In what mood and tense is " 1 have learned" ? " He shall run" ? " Wil- 
liam did sing - " ? 

Q. Will you conjugate leam in the present tense, potential mood ? Will 
3* 



I 

nit 
ty, 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

you conjugate love in the same mood, and imperfect tense 1 Strike, in ttie 
perfect totise ? Come, in the pluperfect tense ? 

Q. How many tenses has the potential mood ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" He may return" 

221. He is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— ^ 
personal ; it invariably represents the same person — mascu- 
line gender ; it represents a male — third person ; it de- 
notes the person spoken of — singular number ; it implies 
but one-— and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent — 
" Nom. he" — nominative case to may return, by 

Rule VI. The nominative ease governs the verb. 

May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — ac 
tive ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not admit 
an object after it — potential mood ; it implies possibility, 
liberty, &,c. — present tense; it denotes what may be 
now — " 1. I may or can return ; 2. You may or can return ; 
3. He may or can return" — made in the third person, sin- 
gular, because its nominative he is, with which it agrees, 
according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
1. 

" He may come." " Boys may learn arithmetic." 

" He might retire." " The wind may have shaken 
"John can assist me." the trees." 

" William must obey his in- " The lady could have procured 

structer." her fan." 

"We may have erred." "James may catch the thief." 

" John's father would go." " They might learn." 

2. 

" I do rejoice." " The committee will visit the 
"We do learn." school." 

" John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov- 
"An industrious boy will be erty." 

rich." 



XIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB 

To be. 

222. When I say, " I am at home/' you know that am is a verb, because 
it implies being or existence 5 and since to be means to exist, the verb am has 
been called the verb to be. 

nvTi^Tr* a rpiArx? -\/r r\rm 

m 





223. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular 
I am. 
You are. 
He is. 


PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 



VERBS. 3J 





IMPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I was. 1. We were. 


2. 


You were. 2. You were. 


3. 


He was. .3. They were. 




PERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I have been. 1. We have been. 


2. 


You have been. 2. You have been. 


3. 


He has been. 3. They have been. 




PLUPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I had been. 1. We had been. 


2. 


You had been. 2. You had been. 


3. 


He had been. 3. They had been. 




FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 


2. 


You shall or will be 2. You shall or will be. 


3. 


He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 




SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


1 shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 


2. 


You will have been. 2. You will have been. 


3. 


He will have been. 3. They will have been. 




POTENTIAL MOOD. 




PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 

2. You may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 

3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, ot 

should be. should be. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 
PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have been. 1. We may, can, or must have 

2. You may, can, or must have been. 

been. 2. You may, can, or must have 

3. He may, can, or must have been. 

been. 3. They may, can, or must have 

been. 
PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, tould, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have been. should have been. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

8 He might, could., would, or 3. They might, could, would, oi 

should have been. should have been. 



3& ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular with Thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. Thou art. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 

Imp. Thou wast. Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

Per/. Thou hast been. or shouldst be. 

Plup. Thou hadst been. Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must 

1 Fid. Thou shalt or wilt have been. 

be. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

2Fut. Thou wilt have or shouldst have been. 

been. 



XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. 

Q. Why is am a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why 
is it so called? (222.) 

Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to be with / through the indica- 
tive mood ? 

Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative 1 Imperfect ? Per- 
fect ? Pluperfect? 1 Future ? 2 Future ? Present potential ? Imperfect? 
Perfect ? Pluperfect ? 

Q. In what mood, tense, number and person is " I am" ? " Am I ?" " You 
were" ? " I have been" ? " Have you been ?" " He may or can be" ? " We 
should be" ? "He may have been" ? « They should have been" ? " Thou 
shouldst have been" ? " Thou mayst be" ? 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with thou ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The girls were industrious." 

225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being- — neu- 
ter ; it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply be- 
ing — indicative mood ; it simply indicates or declares a 
thing — imperfect tense; it expresses past time — " 1. I 
was; 2. You were; 3. He was. Plur. 1. We were; 
2. You were; 3. They were, or girls were" — made in the 
third person plural, because its nominative girls is, with 
which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun 
to describe it — " industrious, more industrious, most industri- 
ous" — in the positive degree ; it describes, without any 
comparison — and belongs to the noun girls, according to 

Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 

QCT For the and girls, appJy Rules III. and VI. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" William is attentive." " Am I young ?" 

•' John is studious." " Was I wrong ?" 

i We are jealous." " Have we been wicked ? w 

« Thou art dutiful." " Were they penitent ?" 



ADVERBS. 33 

u Mary has been intelligent." " Washington was patriotic." 

" The boys will have been du- " Columbus was enterprising." 

tiful." " My wife's mother is sick." 
u Their estate was small." 



XV. OF THE ADVERB. 

Q. When I say, " The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by swiftly to de- 
scribe bird : what does swiftly describe ? 

226. The manner of flying. 

Q. To what part of speech is siciftly joined in the phrase, " The bird flies 
swiftly" ? 

227. To the verb flies. 

Q. What does the word adverb signify ? 

228. Joined to a verb. 

Q. What, then, shall we call all such words as swiftly ? 

229. Adverbs. 

Q. " John runs very swiftly." Which word here describes or shows how 
swiftly John runs 1 

230. Very. 

Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as qualify or describe 
adverbs ? 

231. Adverbs. 

Q. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more 
and most called here, and why 1 

232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify ad- 
jectives. 

Q. From the foregoing 1 particulars, what appears to be a proper definition 
of adverbs ? 

233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. 

Q. " John visits me of en, but Thomas oftener." In this example, we see 
that adverbs may be compared : will you, therefore, compare soon? 

234. " Soon, sooner, soonest." 

Q. Will you compare wisely ? 

235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely." 

Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared I 

236. By the adverbs more and most. 

Q, Will you in this manner compare admirably ? foolishly ? 

Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon 
above 3 but there is a very considerable number, the comparison of which is 
not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs va 
riously compared : will you repeat the comparative and superlative of each, as 
I name the positive 1 

237. Positive, Comparative. S7iperlative. 

Often, oftener, oftenest 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

Justly more justly, most justly. 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Justly, less justly, ,east justly. 

Badly, or ill, worse, worst. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

238. Note. — Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few 
classes. You will now read with attention the following list, and I will then ask you 
ssme questions respecting each class. 

1. Of number : as, w Once, twice, thrice," &c. 

2. Of order : as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally,' 1 &c. 

3. Of place: as," Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, 
herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, 
hence, thence, whithersoever," &:c. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present : as," Now, to-day," &c. 

Of time past: as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long 
6ince, long ago," &.c. 

Of time to come .- as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, 
by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways," <Stc. 

Of time inaejinite: as, "Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, 
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 

5. Of quantity : as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, 
abundantly," &.c. 

6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," 
&c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed 
by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly : as, 
" Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt-, as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." 

8. Of affirmation: as, " Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, 
surely, indeed, really," &.c. 

9. Of negation : as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," &c. 

10. Of interrogation: as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 

11. Of comparison: as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, 
almost, little, alike," &c. 

When a preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its appli- 
cation : as when we say, "He rides about;" "He was near falling j" " But do not 
after lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter o used 
instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat." 

Q. Will you name two adverbs of number ? two of order ? two of place ? 
(wo of time present 1 two of time past ? two of time to come 1 two of time 
indefinite 1 two of quantity 1 two of manner or quality 1 two of doubt ? two 
of affirmation 1 two of negatioi 1 two of interrogation ? two of comparison 1 

Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs : how, then, can you tell one 
from the other ? 

239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe 
or qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Q. This fact should be remembered ) you shall, therefore; have it in the 
form of a rule : will you repeat it ? 

RULE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other 

adverbs. 

Q. From bad we form the adverb badly : how ; then, may a large class of 
adverbs be formed 1 

240. By adding ly to adjectives. 

Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? from great ? from 
tin/id 1 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The bird sings sweetly." 

241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb ; in this example it qualifies the 
verb sings, agreeably to 

Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

Sings, bird and tlie are parsed as before. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



35 



EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

Adverbs qualifying verbs. 
u The soldiers marched slowly." " They will return soon." 
"The girls sing delightfully." "The boys write admirably." 
" Henry improves rapidly." " Susan dances elegantly." 

Adverbs qualifying adjectives. 
"He was very attentive." "James is more studious." 

" John is quite busy." " Walter is most studious." 

" William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy." 

Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. 
" You learn grammar veiy " James writes most elegantly." 
well." " I will assist you most cheer- 

" The boys write too fast." fully." 

" He will come much oflener." 

Adverbs promiscuously used. 
" He has read once." " John is not happy." 

" I will first remind you." « Whither shall I fly ?" 

" I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the pa- 

" I have eaten sufficiently." per monthly." 



XVI. OF THE PREPOSITION. 



Q. To say, " The cider is— cellar/-" would make no sense : can you inform 
me what would make sense 1 

242. " The cider is in the cellar." 

Q. By placing the little word in after cider is, and before cellar, the sen- 
tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does in perform ? 

243. It connects words, and thereby shows the re- 
lation between them. 

Q. What does the word preposition mean ? 

244. Placed before. 

Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed be- 
fore other words to connect them with words preceding ? 

245. Prepositions. 

Q. What, then, are prepositions ? 

246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, 
and thereby show the relation between them. 

247. List of the principal Prepositions. 



Among 

around 

amidst 

athwart 

after 

about 

against 

across 

above 

according to 

Q. Will 3 T ou mention the prepositions beginning with a ? with b ? c? d? 



at 

by 

below 

between 

beneath 

behind 

betwixt 

beside 

beyond 

before 



concerning 

down 

except 

excepting 

for 

from 

in 

into 

instead of 



near 

of 

ofT 

on 

over 

out of 

respecting 

to 

towards 



notwithstanding through 



throughout 

touching 

up 

upon 

under 

underneath 

unto 

with 

within 

without 



€? f? i? n? o? r? t? u? w? 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Will you now repeat all the prepositions ? 

Q. Do we say, " He works for I/' or, " He works fbr me" 1 

Q. In what case is me ? (127.) 

Q. What case, then, follows prepositions ? 

248. The objective case. 

Q. This fact is of sufficient importance to constitute a rule : will you, 
therefore, repeat 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" John found his hat in the road" 

249. In is a preposition, a word used to connect words, 
and show the relation between them ; it here shows the rela- 
tion between hat and road. 

Road is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — neuter gender; it is neither male nor female — 
third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it 
means but one — objective case ; it is the object of the rela- 
tion denoted by the preposition in : and governed by it accord- 
ing to 

Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case.* 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

"John ran through the house "I will search the house dili- 

into the garden." gently for him." 

" We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson 

sorrow." before them." 

" We came in season." " According to my impression, 

" You study grammar for your he is in fault." 

improvement in language." " Notwithstanding his poverty, 

" From virtue to vice the prog- he was the delight of his 

ress is gradual." acquaintances." 

" They travelled into France " On all occasions she behaved 

through Italy." with propriety." 

"He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say 

" Without the aid of charity, he much." 

lived very comfortably by " We may expect a calm after 

his industry." a storm." 



XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

Q. When I say, " John his book/' the sense, you perceive, is incom- 
plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ? 

250. " John reads his book." 

_ „„^ — — .I.. 

* The remaining words are parsed as before. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 33 

Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called ? 

251. A sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a sentence ? 

252. A collection of words, forming a complete sense 

Q. " Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell ma 
what kind, and why 1 

253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes sense, 
and has but one nominative and one verb. 

Q. What does the term compound mean ? 

254. It means composed of two or more things. 

Q. " Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two sim- 
ple sentences : what, therefore, may it be called 1 

255. A compound sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 

256. A compound sentence contains two or more 
simple sentences connected together. 

Q. What does the term conjunction signify 1 

257. Union, or joining together. 

Q. In the compound sentence, " John writes, and William learns," the 
simple sentences are joined together by the word and: what word, then, may 
and be called 1 

258. A Conjunction. 

Q. u The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, words 
and not sentences are connected by and : can you point out the words so con- 
nected ? 

259. King and queen. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the con- 
junction ? 

260. A conjunction is used to connect words and 
sentences together. 

Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine/'" what do I mean 7 

261. Five added to four make nine. 

Q. What, then, is implied by and ? 

262. Addition. 

Q. When I say, " I wil! go, if. you will accompany me/* 7 what does the 
conjunction if imply ? 

263. Condition or supposition. 

Q. What does the word copulative mean ? 

264. Uniting, joining, or linking together. 

Q. And, if, &c. are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why ? 

205. Because a copulative conjunction connects or 
continues a sentence by expressing an addition, a 
supposition, a cause, &c. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you re- 
peat them ? 

266. " And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, 
since, then, that, therefore, wherefore." 

Q. When I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come ', 
but when I say, u James or John will come," what do I mean ? 

267. That either James or John, one of them, will 
come. 

4 d 




38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ? 

268. Disjoined. 

Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining 1 

269. Or. 

Q. What part of speech is or ? 

270. Conjunction. 

Q. What does the word disjunctive mean ? 

271. Disjoining or separating. 

Q. What kind of a conjunction, then, shall w r e call or ? 

272. A disjunctive conjunction. 

Q. u James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of the 
sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word but separates 
these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply ? 

273. Opposition of meaning. 

Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive con- 
junction ? 

274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sen- 
tences, by expressing opposition of meaning in vari- 
ous degrees. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you re- 
peat them ? 

275. " But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, nei- 
ther, nor, less, yet, notwithstanding." 

Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions i 
how, then, can you tell the one from the other ? 

276. Prepositions show the relation between words, 
but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a 
cause, or an opposition of meaning, 

Q. u He and she write." In what case is he ? she ? 

Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same case, and 
connected by the conjunction and: when, then, may nouns and pronouns 
be connected ? 

277. When they are in the same case. 

Q. " She will sing and dances." How \ur\ this sentence be corrected ? 

278. " She will sing and dance/' 

Q. In what mood and tense is " She will sing" ? 

Q. To say, " She dance/' is incorrect ; dance, then, in this example, can- 
not be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me what " She will sing and 
dance" means, when fully expressed ? 

279. " She will sing and she will dance." 

Q. Here will dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when, then, 
may verbs, in general, be connected ? 

280. When they are in the same mood and tense. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the use 
of conjunctions, in connecting words ? 

HUXal! XI. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the 
same case 



INTERJECTIONS. 39 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" John assists his father and mother" 
281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect 
words and sentences — copulative ; it connects father and 
mother. 

Mother is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — feminine gender ; it is the name of a female — 
third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it 
means but one — and it is one of the objects of assists, and 
is, therefore, in the objective case, and connected with 
father by the conjunction and, according to 

Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" I will reward him and them at " She reads well, dances (3.) 
some future time." elegantly, and plays admi- 

" We in vain (1.) look for a path rably on the piano-forte." 

between virtue and vice." " Intemperance destroys the 

" Reproof either hardens or mind and benumbs the 

softens its object." senses of man." 

" In the morning of life, we ea- " You may read this sentence 
gerly pursue pleasure, but first, and then parse it." 

oftentimes meet (2.) with " He has equal knowledge, but 
sad disappointments." inferior judgment." 

u A good scholar never mutters " John rises early in the morn- 
nor disobeys his instructer." ing, and pursues his stud- 

ies," 



XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Q. When I exclaim, " Oh ! I have ruined my friend," " Alas ! I fear for 
life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to ex- 
press passion or feeling 1 

282. Oh I Alas ! 

Q. What does interjection mean ? 

283. Thrown between. 

Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oil ! alas I &e, ? 

284. Interjections. 

Q. What, then, are interjections ? 

285. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden 
feelings of the speaker. 

(1.) In vain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an 
adverbial phrase, qualifying look, by Rule IX. 

(2.) Meet agrees with we understood, and is, therefore, connected with pur- 
sue Dythe conjunction but, according to Rule XI. 

(3 ) Dances and plays both agree with slie, understood, and are, therefore 
connected, the former with reads, and the latter with dances, by Rule XI. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief; as, " O ! oh ! alas !- ah !" 

2. Of wonder ; as, " Really ! strange !" 

3. Of calling ; as, " Halloo ! ho ! hem !" 

4. Of attention; as, "Behold ! lo ! hark!" 

5. Of disgust ; as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away !" 

6. Of silence ; as, " Hush ! hist !" 

7. Of contempt ; as, " Pish ! tush !" 

8. Of saluting ; as, " Welcome ! hail !" 

Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of 
grief ? One of wonder 1 One of calling ? One of attention ? One of dis- 
gust ? One of silence ? One of saluting ? 

Q. How may an interjection generally be known ? 

286. By its taking an exclamation point after it 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" Oh ! I have alienated my friend." 
287. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas 
sion or feeling. 

Q3 3 The remaining words are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" Oh ! I must go and see (1.) " Strange ! I did not know 
my dear father before (2^ you." 

he dies." " Hush ! our instructer is at the 

u We eagerly pursue pleasure, door." 

but, alas ! we often mistake " Fy ! how angry he is !" 
the road to its (3.) enjoy- 
ment." 

(1.) The sense is ; " I must go, and I must see ;" the verb see, then, agrees 
with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with must go. according to 
Rule XL 

(2.) Before, an adverb. 

(3.) Apply, first, Rule V.j then, Rule L 






RECAPITULATION. 



CRITICAL REMARKS. 

COMPOSITION. 

XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write 
the English language correctly. 

289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 

290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 
2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 



XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature 
and power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly. 
This part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books 
and dictionaries. 

292. Orthography means word-making, or spelling. 



XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 

293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words 
in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts, 
commonly called Parts of Speech. 

294. It includes acknowledge of the meaning and use of 
words — also their different changes and derivations. 

295. Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. 

XIX. What does English grammar How is a knowledge of orthography 
teach? 288. usually obtained ? 291. 

Into how many parts is it divided? 289. What does orthography mean ? 292. 
What are they ? 290. XXI. What does etymology teach ? 293 

XX. What does orthography include What does it include ? 294. 

and teach ? 291. What does the word signify ? 295 

4 * 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

XXII. OF SYNTAX 



296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into 
sentences correctly. 

297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composi- 
tion, formed from the practice of the best writers and 
speakers. 

298. Syntax signifies arranging or "placing together ; or, as used in gram- 
mar, sentence-making. 



XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 

299. The words of the English language are usually 
divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, 
namely, 

Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, 

Article, Verb, Conjunction, 



Adjective, 



Adverb, 



Interjection. 



XXIV. OF NOUNS. 

300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing; 
as, man, London, knife. 

301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. 
Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names 

common to all individuals of the same kind or sort ; as, house, 
city, river. 

302. Proper nouns are particular names ; that is, they 
are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or 
sort ; as, George, Boston, Mississippi. 

303. When proper names have an article placed before them, they are used 
as common names ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age." 

304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun ; 



XXII. What does syntax teach ? 296. 
What does it include ? 297. 

What does the word signify ? 298. 

XXIII. How many different sorts of 
words are there ? 299. 

What are they ? 299. 
What are these sorts of words com- 
monly called ? 299. 

XXIV. What does the word noun 
mean ?* 

What is a noun ? 300. Give an exam- 
ple. 

How many different kinds of nouns are 
there, and what are they? 301. 



What does the word common mean? 
31. 

What is a common noun? 301. Give 
an example 

What does proper mean ? 34. 

What is a proper^tioun ? 302. Give an 
example. 

When proper nouns have an article be- 
fore them, how are they used? 303. Give 
an example. 

Are proper names used as such in the 
plural? 304. 

Why cannot proper names have a plu- 
ral ? 304. 



See I. 1st answer. 



NOUNS. 43 

as, " The twelve Cc&sars," or, '[ The seven Jameses." This is obvious from 
the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object only, 
and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Spaniard, Euro- 
•pean y American^ &lc. are common nouns, as well as their plurals, Spaniards, 
Europeans, Americans, &c* 

305. Common nomis may also be used to signify individuals, by the addi 
tion of articles or pronouns 5 as, " The boy is studious •" u That girl is dis- 
creet." 

306. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, or a col 
lective noun 5 as, " The people," " The army." 

307. Abstract signifies taken from : hence an abstract noun is the name of a 
quality abstracted from its substance 5 as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, &c. 

308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. 



XXV. PERSON. 

309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own 
name, it is the first person ; as, " I, James, of the city of 
Boston, do give," &c. 

310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second 
person ; as, " James, come to me." 

311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, 
is the third person ; as, " James has come." 



XXVI. GENDER. 

312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the femi- 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; 
as, man, boy, &c. 

315. The feminine gender denotes the name of females ; 
as, woman, girl. 

What do they become when soused? When is a noun of the second person ? 

304. Give an example. 310. Give an example. 

What kind of nouns are Spaniard, When is a noun of the third person? 

Americans, Spaniards ? 304. 311. Give an example. 

What effect does the use of articles XXVI. What does the word gender 

have on common nouns ? 305. mean ? 14. 

What is a noun of multitude, or a col- What is gender as applied to nouns i 

lective noun ? 306. Give an example. 312. 

What is an abstract noun ? 307. Give Whatdoes the word masculine mean? 15. 

an example. What does the masculine gender 0/ 

What belong to nouns? 308. nouns denote? 314. Give an example. 

XXV. When is a noati of the first What docs feminine mean? 19. 

person ? 309. Give an example. Whatdoes the feminine gender denote ? 

315. Give an example. 

* Spain is the proper name of a country, and Spanxard has, by some grammarians, been called the propel 
name of a people ; but the latter is a generic term, characterizing any one of a great muuber of persona, by 
their connection with Spain Encyclopmdia. 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



316. The common gender denotes the names of such 
animals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird. 

317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects 
which are neither males nor females ; as, chair, table. 

318. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is called, 
become masculine or feminine 5 as when we say of the sun, " He is setting/' 
and of a ship, " She sails well," &c. 

319. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz 1 
319-1. By different words 3 as, 



Male. 
Bachelor, 
Boar, 
Boy, 
Brother, 
Buck, 
Bull, 

Bullock or 
Steer, 
Cock, 
l>og, 
Drake, 
Earl, 
Father, 
Friar, 
Gander, 
Hart, 
Horse, 



Male. 
Abbot, 
Actor, 

Administrator, 
Adulterer, 
Ambassador, 
Arbiter, 
Baron, 
Bridegroom, 
Benefactor, 
Caterer, 
Chanter, 
Conductor, 
Count, 
Czar, 
Deacon, 
Duke, 
Elector, 
Emperor, 



Female. 


Male. 


Blaid. 


Husband, 


Sow. 


Sf 


Girl. 


Sister. 


Lord, 


Doe. 


Man, 


Cow. 


Master, 


Heifer. 


Milter, 
Nephew, 


Hen. 


Ram, 


Bitch. 


Singer, 


Duck. 


Countess. 


Sir, 


Mother. 


Sloven, 


Nun. 


Son, 


Goose. 


Stag, 


Roe. 


Uncle, 


Mare. 


Wizard, 



Female. 

Wife. 

Queen. 

Lass. 

Lady. 

Woman. 

Mistress. 

Spawner. 

Niece. 

Ewe. 
( Songstress or 
( Singer. 

Madam. 

Slut. 

Daughter. 

Hind. 

Aunt. 

Witch. 



319-2. By a difference of termination 5 as, 



Female. 
Abbess. 
Actress. 
Administratrix. 
Adulteress. 
Ambassadress. 
Arbitress. 
Baroness. 
Bride. 

Benefactress. 
Cateress. 
Chantress. 
Conductress. 
Countess. 
Czarina. 
Deaconess. 
Duchess. 
Electress. 
Empress. 



Male. 
Enchanter, 
Executor, 
God, 

Governor, 
Heir, 
Hero, 
Hunter, 
Host, 
Instructer, 
Jew, 

Landgrave, 
Lion, 
Marquis, 
Mayor, 
Patron, 
Peer, 
Poet, 
Priest, 



Female. 
Enchantress. 
Executrix. 
Goddess. 
Governess. 
Heiress. 
Heroine. 
Huntress. 
Hostess. 
Instructress. 
Jewess. 
Landgravine. 
Lioness. 
Marchioness. 
Mayoress. 
Patroness. 
Peeress. 
Poetess. 
Priestess. 






What does the common gender denote ? 

316. Give an example. 

What does neuter mean ? 23. 

What does the neuter gender denote ? 

317. Give an example. 

What is said of nouns naturally neu- 
ter, in respect to gender? 318. Give an 
example. 

How many genders do nouns have, and 
what are they? 30. 

How many methods are there in Eng- 
lish of distinguishing sex? 319. 

Which is the first 3 as, boy 1 girl 7 319-1. 

Will you spell the feminine correspond- 
ing to brother! 319-1. to boy 7 nephew 7 



wizard 7 friar 7 sir 7 drake 7 earl 7 gander 1 
hart 7 king 7 lad 7 man 7 master 7 singer 7 
sloven 7 sou 7 s-tag 7 uncle 7 

Will you spell the masculine corre- 
sponding to maid 7 girl 7 madam 7 daugh- 
ter 7 niece 7 

What is the second method of distin- 
guishing sex ; as, abbot 7 abbess 7 319—2. 

Will you spell the feminine corre- 
sponding to abbot! actor 7 administrator 7 
baron 7 benefactor 7 bridegromn 7 conduct- 
or 7 czar 7 duke 7 emperor 7 executor ? 
god 7 governor 7 heir 7 hero 7 host 7 hunt- 
er 7 instructer 7 Jew 7 lion 7 marquis 7 
patron 7 peer 7 proprietor 7 shepherd 7 sor- 



NOUNS. 



45 



Male. Female. 

Prince, Princess. 

Prior, Prioress. 

Prophet, Prophetess. 

Protector, Protectress. 

Proprietor, Proprietress. 

Shepherd, Shepherdess. 

Songster, Songstress. 

Sorcerer, Sorceress. 

319-3. By prefixing £ 

A cock-sparrow, 
A man-servant, 
A he-goat, 
A he-bear, 
A male child, 
Male descendants, 



Male 
Sultan, 
Tiger, 



Female. 
( Sultaness, 
I Sultana. 

Tigress. 

Traitress. 

Tutoress. 

Viscountess. 

Votaress. 

Widow. 



Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Viscount, 

Votary, 

Widower, 

noun, pronoun, or adjective 5 as, 
A hen-sparrow. 
A maid-servant. 
A she-goat. 
A she-bear. 
A female child. 
Female descendants. 



XXVII. NUMBER. 



Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the 



320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one 
or more. 

321. 
plural. 

322. 

323. 

324. 



The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy. 
The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys. 
Some nouns are used in the singular number only ; 
as, wheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness. 

325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; 
as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 

326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers; as, 
deer, sheep, swine. 

327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur. doves. 

328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when the noun 
singular ends in x, ch, sh, or ss, we add es to form the plural 5 as, box, boxes , 
church, churches; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses. 

329. Nouns ending in f or fe, change these terminations into ves to form 
the plural 5 as, loaf, loaves ; wife, wives. 



cerer 7 sultan 7 tiger 7 tutor 7 viscount 7 
votary 7 widower 7 

Will you spell the masculine corre- 
sponding to abbess 7 czarina 7 duchess 7 
ambassadress 7 heroine 7 huntress 7 poet- 
ess 7 prophetess 7 widow 7 

What is the third method of distin- 
guishing sex ; as, a man-servant 7 a maid- 
servant7 319-3. 

Will you spell the feminine corre- 
sponding to male child 7 male descendants 7 

XXV [I. What does the word number 
mean ? 5. 

What does the number of nouns show? 
320. 

What does singular mean ? 6. 



What does the singular number ol 
nouns imply ? 322. Give an example 

What does plural mean ? 10. 

What does the plural number of nouns 
imply ? 323. Give an example. 

How are wheat, gold, &c. used ? 324. 

How are bellows, lungs, &c. used ? 325. 

What is said of deer, sheep, &c. ? 326. 

How many numbers do nouns have, and 
what are they ? 321. 

How is the plural number regularly 
formed? 327. Give an example. 

When do we add es to form tho plural ? 
328. Give an example. 

What is the plural of loaf 7 329 

What is he rule for it ? 329. 



4f>, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural is 
formed regularly 5 as, key, keys; delay, delays; valley, valleys. But if they 
does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies; 
RS,Jly,Jlies ; beauty, beauties. 

331. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general 
rules :— 



Sing. 
Man, 
Woman, 
Child, 
Ox, 
Tooth, 
Foot, 
Goose, 



Plur. 
Men. 
Women. 
Children. 
Oxen. 
Teeth. 
Feet. 
Geese. 



Sing. 
Mouse, 
Louse, 

Cow, 

ST' 

Pea, 



Plur. 
Mice. 
Lice. 
Cows or 
Kine. 
Pence. (1.) 
Dice. (2. 
Peas. (3. 



Sing. Plur. 

Fish, - Fishes. (3.) 

Cupful, Cupfuls. 

Spoonful, Spoonfuls. 

Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law. 
Court-martial, Courts-martial. 
T^fi^,. S Brothers or 

Brother, X Brethren. 



332. Mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, ethics, politics, &c. are reck- 
oned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true of means, 
alms, amends. Antipodes, credenda, minutica, literati, &c. are always plural. 
Bandit is now considered the singular of banditti. The noun news is always 
singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the lan- 
guage from which they are derived. The following are of this class :— 



» Singular. 
Antithesis, 

Appendix, 

Apex, 

Arcanum, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 

Beau, 

Basis, 

Calx, 

Cherub, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Diaeresis, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 



Plural. 

Antitheses. 
< Appendixes or 
I Appendices. 

Apices. 

Arcana. 

Automata. 

Axes. 

Beaux or Beaus. 

Bases. 

Calces. 
( Cherubim or 
I Cherubs. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Data. 

Diaereses. 

Desiderata. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 
C Encomia or 
I Encomiums. 

Errata. 



Singular. 
Genius, 
Genus, 
Hypothesis, 
Ignis fatuus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 
Magnus, 

Memorandum, 

Metamorphosis, 

Parenthesis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Stamen, 

Seraph, 

Stimulus, 
Stratum, 
Thesis, 
Vertex, 

Vortex, 



Plural. 

Genii. (4.) 

Genera. 

Hypotheses. 

Ignes fatui. 
C Indices or 
( Indexes. (5.) 

Laminae. 

Magi. 
( Memoranda or 
( Memorandums 

Metamorphoses. 

Parentheses. 

Phenomena. 

Radii or Radiuses. 

Stamina. 
( Seraphim or 
( Seraphs. 

Stimuli. 

Strata. 

Theses. 

Vertices. 
< Vortices or 
t Vortexes. 



Will you spell the plural of delay 7 330. 
valley 7 What is the rule for forming 
these plurals? 330. 

Will you spell the plural of fly 7 330. 
beauty 7 Rule for the plural ? 

Do man, woman, form their plurals reg- 
ularly, or irregularly ? 331. 

Will you spell the plural of man 7 of 
woman? child 7 ox7 tooth 7 foot7 goose7 
•mouse 7 louse 7 brother 7 die 7 jish 7 spoon- 
Jul7 court-martial 7 

Will you spell the singular of lice? 
kine 7 cows 7 brethren 7 oxen 7 teeth 7 
fence 7 pennies 7 peas 7 fishes 7 cupfuls 7 
brothers-in-law 7 

What is the plural of pea, when we re- 
fer to quantity ? Offish 7 



What is the singular of banditti! 
332. 

In accordance with what laws does an- 
tithesis form the plural ? 332. 

Will you spell the plural of apex! ap- 
pendix 7 arcanum 7 automaton 7 axis 7 en 
sis 7 basis 7 criterion 7 datum 1 desiderar 
turn 7 effluvium 7 encomium 7 erratum ! 
g enius 7 index 7 memorandum 7 

Will you spell ihe singular of bases ! 
beaux 7 cherubs 7 ellipses 7 genii 7 theses ? 
parentheses 7 stimuli 7 strata 7 

How are mathematics, optics, &c. con- 
sidered in regard to number ? 332. 

Of what number is means 7 332. alms! 
amends 7 antipodes 7 literati! news! 



(1.) Pennies, when the coin is meant. (2.) Dies, for coining. (3.) Pease and fish, meaning quantitiai ; 
but peas and fisTus, when number is meant. 

(4.) Genii, when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits : geniuses, whfcn denoting persons of genius. (5.) In- 
skzui when denoting pointers or tables of contents ; inakes, when referring to algebraic quantities. 



NOUNS. 47 

XXVIII. CASE. 

333. Case means the different state, condition, or rela- 
tion which nouns have to other words m the same sentence. 

334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, 
and always the subject of the verb. 

336. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, "John assists Wil- 
liam :" here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative case to the verb 
assists. 

337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, 
property, &,c. ; as, "William's book." This case may be 
distinguished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the 
letter s. 

338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by 
taking the apostrophe and the letter 5 after it ; as, " John's 
hat." 

339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case sim- 
ply by taking the apostrophe ; as, "On eagles' wings." 

340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s, they form their possessive 
case by taking- both the apostrophe and the letter 5 ; as, " Men's houses." 

341. When the singular ends in ss, the apostrophe on]y is added 5 as ; " For 
goodness 1 sake f except the noun witness ; as, " The witness's deposition." 

342. Nouns ending- in nee form the possessive by adding the apostrophe 
only ; as, " For conscience' sake : ,; because an additional s would occasion too 
much of the hissing- sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation. 

343. The objective case denotes the object of an action 
or relation. 

344. In the sentence, "John strikes him/' hi& is the object of the action 
denoted by strikes ; and in the sentence, " He went from London to York/' 
York is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to. 

345. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative case. 


Mother, 


Mothers. 


Man, 


Men. 


Possessive case, 


Mother's, 


Mothers'. 


Man's, 


Men's. 


Objective case, 


Mother, 


Mothers. 


Man, 


Men. 



XXVIII. What is the meaning of the How do nouns in the plural ? 339. 

word case ? 47. When the plural noun does not end in 

What is meant by the case of nouns ? s, how is its possessive formed ? 340. 

333. Give an example. 

Hfew many cases have nouns, and what When the singular ends in ss, how ia 

are they? 334. the possessive case formed ? 341. Givo 

What does nominative mean ? 49. an example. 

What is the nominative case ? 335. How is the possessive case of nouns 

Give an example. ending in nee formed ? 342. Give an ex- 

What do you understand by the sub- ample, 

ject of a verb? 336. Illustrate it by an Why is not the s added ? 342. 

example. What does the word objective mean ? 

What does possessive mean ? 59. 55. 

What does the possessive case denote ? What does the objective case of 
337. Give an example. nouns denote ? 343. Give an ex- 
How may this case be distinguished ample, 
from the other cases? 337. What doe? the declension of nouns 

How do nouns in the singular form mean ? 68. 

their possessive case ? 338. Give an ex- Will you decline mother ? 345. man ? 

ample. brother ? hat? 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

BTJXE I. 

The possessive case is governed by the following nown. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" John's wife returned." 
846. John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the 

THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, POSSESSIVE CASE, and gOV 

erned by ivife, by Rule I. 

Wife is a common noun, of the feminine gender, the third 
person, singular number, and nominative case to returned, 
by Rule VI. 

Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, 
imperfect tense — " 1. I returned ; 2. You returned ; 3. He 
returned, or wife returned" — made in the third person, sin- 
gular, and agrees with wife, by Rule VII. 

MORE EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" William's son has come." " William's wife's sister remain- 

" John's brother died." ed in town." 

" John makes (1.) boys' hats." " Rufus studied Johnson's Diction- 

"John lost his knife." ary." 

" The boys neglected their les- " Mary's bonnet is old." 

sons." " Virtue's reward is sure." (2.) 

" Intemperance ruins its votaries." " Rufus's hat is new." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Brothers estate" 

347. If you examine the foregoing example, you will find it difficult to as- 
certain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more 5 if of one 
only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus 5 " Brother's estate : v but if it 
oelongs to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the s, thus ; " Brothers' 
estate." Mistakes of this sort often occur 3 hence 30U perceive the importance, 
in writing, of attending to the subject of grammar. 

" Mans 1 happiness." 

348. Incorrect, because mans 1 is in the possessive case, sin- 
gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed 
before the s, according to the observations above, and Art. 338. 

Will you repeat the rule for the pos- Why cannot you tell ? 

Bessive case ? Rule I. If only one brother is meant, how 

In the sentence, "John's wife return- should the apostrophe be placed ? How, 

ed," will you parse John's 7 wife 7 re- if more than one ? 

turned 7 346. In the phrase, " Mans' happiness," 

Why is John's in the possessive case ? why is it incorrect for the apostrophe to 

S37. follow the s? 348. 

What kind of a verb is returned 7 346. What is the rule for forming the poa 

Why ? 153. sessive case of nouns ? 338. 

In what case is wife 7 346. Will you now parse man's 7 

Why ? 335. We spell the possessive case of man 

$5° The pupil may next parse tJie addi- thus, m-o-n-(apostrophe) s ; will you in 

tional exercises in syntax, like manner spell the possessive of John ? 

In the phrase, " Brothers estate," does William 7 Rufus 7 women 7 boys 7 

one brother, or more than one, own the $Cp The remaining exercises are to be 

estate? 347. corrected as well as parsed. 

(1.) Active-transitive verb. (2.) Adjective, and be-longs to reward, by Rule IV. 



ARTICLES. 49 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 

" Johns son departed." " I discovered Marias faults." 

" Susans sister will learn." " Susan made little Harriets bon- 

" Charles task is too difficult." net." 

«« I have read Willi's poem." " Johnson makes mens shoes." 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.* 
349. Will you write down two sentences, each containing' a 
proper noun, as for example, "William learns grammar" ? One, 
containing a common noun ? One, containing a noun of the third 
person singular ? One, of the third person plural, and in the 
nominative case ? One, having a noun of the second person 
singular and of the feminine gender ? One, having a noun the 
name of some article of food ? One, having a noun the name of 
some quality ? One, having a noun of multitude ? One, having 
your own name associated with book; as, "John Griscom's 
book" ? 



XXIX. OF ARTICLES. 

350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them 
out, or to limit their meaning. 

351. There are two articles, a or an; and the, 

352. A or an is called the indefinite article. 

353. The is called the definite article. 

354. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particular per- 
son or thing ; as, u a house/ 7 " a man/ 7 that is, any house, any man. The article 
the is called definite, because it means some particular person or thing 5 as, 
"the house, 77 " i/ieman/ 7 meaning some particular house, some particular man. 

355. A becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h ; as, " an acorn/ 7 
" an hour. 77 But if the h be sounded, the a only is used 3 as, " a hand 77 " a 
heart : 77 except when the word before which the article is placed, has its ac- 
cent on the second syllable 3 as, " an heroic action/ 7 " an historical account. 77 

356. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead of an ; as, " a 
union/ 7 " a university/ 7 " a useful thing. 77 

357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing 
one, we sound it as if written wun. 

358. The article a or an means one ; as, " an ounce/ 7 " a pound/ 7 that is 
one ounce, one pound. 

XXIX. What is an article ? 350. But if the h is sounded, which is to be 

What does definite mean ? 78. used ? 355. Give an example. 

What is the called ? 353. Why ? 354. What exception to this? 355. Give an 

Give an example. example. 

What does indefinite mean ? 81. Do we say, " a union," or " an un- 

What Is a or an called ? 352. Why ? ion" ? " a university," or " an univer- 

354. Give an example. sity" ? Why ? 356. 

How many articles are there ? 351. Do we say, " a one," or " an one" ? 

Name them. Why ? 357. 

When does a become an ? 355. Give What does the article a mean ? 358. 

an exampie. Give an example. 

* Either on a slate or in a amg.ll manuscript book kept for the purpose. 
5 E 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE SI. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the sin- 
gular number. 

HITLE £11. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular 

or plural number. 

359. Exception. When the adjectives few, great many, dozen, hun- 
dred, thousand, &c. come between the noun and article, the noun to 
which the indefinite article belongs, is plural 5 as, " a few men," " a great ma- 
ny men." 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" The bird flies swiftly." 

360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird, accord- 
ing to Rule III. 

Bhd is a common noun, of the common gender, the third 

PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE tojlies, 

by Rule VI. 

Mies is an active-intransitive verb, indicative mood, 
present tense — " 1. I fly ; 2. You fly ; 3. He flies, or bird 
flies" — made in the third person, singular, and agrees with 
bird, by Rule VII. 

Swiftly is an adverb, qualifying^/Hes, by Rule IX. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" The boys have arrived seasona- " Children attend the school." 

bly." " William founded a university." 

" Galileo invented the telescope." " The grass is green." 

" The boy had an ulcer." " Farmers carry hay into the 
" William gave an historical ac- barn." 

count (1.) of the transaction." " The good scholar obeys his in- 
" Columbus discovered the conti- structer." 

nent of America." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" He had a ulcer." 

361. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except u 
long : a should, therefore, be an ; thus, " an ulcer." 

sentences to be parsed and corrected, continued. 
" A enemy approaches." " Three barley corns make a 

" James procured a inkstand." inch." 

" He conferred a honor." " Eight drams make a ounce." 

" An unit figure occupies the low- " They formed an union." 
est place in whole numbers." " He quoted an hard saying." 

" Thomas has lost an horse." 

What is the rule for the indefinite ar- $5° The remaining exercises are next to 

♦.icle ? Rule II. be parsed from the book. 

What exception to this rule ? 359 Would you say, " a ulcer," or " an ul- 

What is the rule for the indefinite ar- cer" ? Why ? 361. 

tide ? Rule III. §£?" The pupil should now take the re- 
in the sentence, " The bird flies SAvift- maining sentences to be corrected. He 

!y," how do you parse the ? bird ? flies 1 should be required to parse as well as cor- 

twiftly ? 360. red them. 

(1.) Apply Rule VIII 



ADJECTIVES. 51 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, 
and in the other the indefinite article ? One, containing a correctly used 
before u long ? One, having a definite article correctly used before the 
consonant h ? 

Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in the 
school-room? Two, the names of different cities? One sentence, hav- 
ing a proper noun used as a common noun ? 



XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 

363. An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to de- 
scribe or define it ; as, " An obedient son." 

364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the 
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of com- 
parison — the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

365. The, positive degree simply describes an object ; as, 
" John is good." 

366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the pos- 
itive in meaning ; as, " William is better than John." It 
implies a comparison between two. 

367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, " Thomas is the 
best;" " Walter is the worst." 

368. It implies a comparison between three or more. 

369. The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllabic, (1.) becomes the 
comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the 
end of it ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. 

370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually mad© 
by placing- the adverbs more and most before the positive 5 as, benevolent, more 
benevolent, most benevolent. 

371. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least ; 
as, wise, less vrise, least wise. 

372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y, as, happy, lovely, and in le, after a mute, 
(3.) as, able, ample, or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite, easily 

XXX. What is the meaning of the What does it imply ? 368. 
word adjective ? 95. What is a monosyllable ? 369. 

What is an adjective? 363. Give an How are monosyllables compared? 369 

example. Give an example. 

How many degrees of comparison are How are dissyllables compared? 372. 
there ? 364. What effect do less and least have on 

Will you name them? adjectives ? 371. 

What does the positive degree do ? What is a dissyllable ? 372. 

365. Give an example. Will you spell the comparative and su- 
What does the comparative degree do? perlativj degrees of able! lovely ? am- 

366. Give an example. pie ? discreet? polite? 372. 
What does it imply ? 366. Which are the mutes r 372. 

What does superlative mean? 103. How do words of more than two sylla- 

What does the superlative degree do ? bles almost, invariably form thoir compar- 

367. Give an example. ison ? 372. 



(1.) A -word of one syllable. (2.) A word of two syllables. 

(3.) b, h, p, t, and c and g bard, are mutes. 



53 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



admit of er and est; as, happier, happiest; abler, ablest, &c. Words of more 
than two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations. 

373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, netltermost, uttermost, uppermost, 

374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do 
not admit of comparison j as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, in/write, ceaseless, 
supreme, omnipotent, eternal. 

375. By adding 2*5/1 to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison 
below the positive ; as. black, blackish; salt, saltish. 

376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest ; as, " good/' 
" very good.'" 

377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives ; 
as, one, two, three ; first, second, third. These adjectives are not compared. 

378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be considered as such in pars, 
iflg 5 as, " Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad. 11 

RTJI-23 ID". 

Adjectives belong to the nouns ivhich they describe. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



l John 



is sincere. 



379. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singu- 
lar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASK 

to is, by Rule VI. 

Is is a neuter verb, in the INDICATIVE mood, present 
tense — " 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3. He or John is," — made in the 
third person singular, and agrees with John, according to 
Rule VII. 

Sincere is an adjective, — " sincere, more sincere, most sin- 
cere," — made in the positive degree, and belongs to John, by 
Rule IV. 






EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 



u You are studious." 

u John is more studious." 

u William is most studious." 

11 Mary is intelligent." 

u James is active." 

11 Thomas is less active." 

u Charles is happy." 

" Mary is tall. Susan is taller." 

u No composition is perfect." 

" Religion makes its votaries happy." 



" One man has come." 

" Two men have departed." 

•< Twenty men will sail." 

"James wrote his name on the first 

page." 
u Here comes a great man." 
" Here comes a greater man." 
u Here comes the greatest man." 
" The first fleet contained five hundred 

men." 



Is 'perfect compared ? Why ? 374. 

Will you name several others that are 
not compared ? 374. 

How is the superlative formed in the 
word upper ? 373. 

Whut is the effect of ish added to ad- 
jectives? 375. Give an example. 

What is the force of very in compari- 
son ? 376. 

What are numeral adjectives? 377. 
Give an example. Are they compared ? 
377. 

Will you spell the comoarative and su- 



perlative degrees of good ? ill ? much 
little ? 

When is an adjective to be considered 
a noun ? 378. 

What Is the rule for the adjective ? IV. 

In the phrase, " John is sincere," how 
do you parse John 1 is 1 sincere ? 379. 
Why is sincere in the positive degree ? 
365. Why do you call is a neuter verb I 
157. 

#!j = 'Let the pupil next take the exercises 
that follow, and parse as before. 



PRONOUNS. 53 

XXXI. 

380. Double comparatives and superlatives, since they add 
nothing to the sense, should be avoided ; as, worser, more miser, 
&c. ; also, lesser, supremest, most infinite, &c. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a different 
adjective in the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the compara- 
tive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree ? 

Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences a3 

will make sense ? " A boy studies his lesson." " A boy 

deserves punishment." " A man helps the man." " Mer- 
chants own ships." " The instructor loves scholars." 

" William is a scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the 

one that I ever saw." 



XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 

381. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun. 

382. A personal pronoun is so called, because it invari- 
ably represents the same person. There are five personal 
pronouns — I, thou or you, he, she, it. They have per- 
son, number and case, like nouns ; and those of the third 
person have gender also. 

383. I is the first person, thou the second, he, she or it, the 
third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 

384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- 
native, the possessive and the objective ; and two numbers — 
the singular and plural. 

385. Mine and thine, instead of mij and thy, were formerly used in the 
solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowd or silent h ; 
as, " Blot out all mine iniquities.' 7 

XXXI. Is it correct to say, "A lesser XXXII. What does the word pro- 
evil ?" Why not ? 380. noun signify ? 120. 

Will you correct the following inaccu- What is a pronoun ? 381. 

racies in comparison as I read them to Why is a personal pronoun so called ' 

you ? 382. 

" He is intelligenter." How many personal pronouns are there, 

" She is the most wisest." and what are they ? 382. 

" A worser evil." Why is this number said to include all 

u William is a bad boy ; Joseph is a the pronouns ? 134. 

worser one." Wliich is the first person ? the second? 

" He gave a more stronger proof of the the third ? 383. 

fact than the other." To which of the pronouns do we apply 

" The pleasures of the mind are more gender ? 383. 

(1.) preferable than those of the body." Why is not gender applied to the first 

" That table is round, but this is a and second persons ? 136. 

rounder one, and that is the roundest of Which is masculine? 383. which fem- 

the three." inine ? 383. which neuter ? 383. 

" This is more square." How many cases have pronouns, and 

"A more greater concern." what are they ? 384. 

" The most fairest of all the daughters How many numbers ? 384. 

of Eve." Will you decline II tliou 1 he 7 sh$* 

" His mother's extremest joy." it 1 127. 

(1.) Fnr more preferable than, read preferalte to 

5 * 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

386. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding 
the word self, in the plural selves, to the simple pronouns, as 
himself 9 themselves, &c. 



PERSON. 

First. 



Second. 



Third. 



CASE. 

Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj. 
Nom. 

Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 



SINGULAR. 

Myself, 
Wanting. 
Myself, 
Thyself, or) 
Yourself, ) 

Thyself, or 

Yourself, 

Himself, 



Himself, 
Herself, 

Herself, 
Itself, 



PLURAL. 

Ourselves. 

Ourselves. 
Yourselves. 

Yourselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 
Themselves. 



Itself, 



Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 



RXXIiIS V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand, in gender, number and person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" John found his knife." 
387. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the 

THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and NOMINATIVE CASE to 

found, by Rule VI. 

Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative 
mood, imperfect tense — " 1. I found ; 2. You found; 3. He 
or John found" — made in the third person singular, and 
agrees with John, by Rule VII. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person singu- 
lar, masculine gender, and agrees with John, according to 
Rule V.; in the possessive case, and governed by knife, by 
Rule I. 

Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, 
neuter gender, the objective case, and governed by found, 
according to Rule VIII. 



Of what number and person is mine ? 
ours ? me 1 we 7 they 1 thine ? you 1 
yours ? 127. 

Of what gender, number and person is 
he ? she 1 it? 

Of what number, person and case is 
they ? ours ? his ? hers ? mine ? 

In what style were mine and thine for- 
merly used ? 385. 

XXXIII. How are the compound per- 
sonal pronouns formed ? 386. 



What is the rule for the agreement of 
personal pronouns in the phrase, " John 
found his knife" ? V. 

How do you parse John ? 387. 

Will you parse John in the phrase, 
" John found his knife" ? 387. 

Will you parse found ? his ? knife ? 
387. 

gj^The learner should next parse the re- 
maining exercises in Syntat from the book 
and then take the exercises to be written. 



PRONOUNS. 



55 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED, 



" James obtained his request." 

" I will assist you." 

*' He will receive his reward." 

M She misused him." 

«« Sin ruins its votaries." 



1. 



Ye despise reproof." 
" They mend their pens." 
" Mary tore her handkerchief." 
" Virtue has its reward." 
el She deceived them." 



" An indulgent father will reprove " John is in distress, and I will 

his son when (1.) he deserves assist him." 

it." " I found Mary and her mother in 

" A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, and (2.) comforted (3.) 

of his parents." them." 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal 
pronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first per- 
son plural ? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns, 
so a3 to make sense ? " — lost my hat, but found — again." " Let 
Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." " The 
travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." 

Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable 

words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington 

father of his ." " Columbus America." " Boston 

r inhabitants." " The ocean is miles wide." " 

— first man." 



XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



388. In the sentence, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations 5 that 
tends to excite pride, this discontent 3" you perceive that the word that repre- 
sents wealth, and the word this poverty. Tliis and that do, therefore, resem- 
ble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. 

389. When I say, u This house is mine, that barn is yours," the words this 
and tliat are joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or specify them : they 
may, on this account, be called adjectives. 

390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble 
both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are some- 
times called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 

391. The adjective pronouns may be divided into three 
sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 

392. The distributive are those that relate to persons or 
things, taken separately and singly. 






XXXIV. What are adjective pro- 
nouns? 390. 

Why are they so called ? 388, 389. 

By what other name have these pro- 
nouns been called ? 390. 

Will you give an example in which 
these words resemble pronouns ? 388. 



One in which they resemble adiectives ? 
389. 

Into how many sorts may these pro- 
nouns be divided, and what are they "* 
391. 

What is a distributive pronoun ? 392. 



(1.) Adverb. 



(2.) Comunctnn. 



(3.1 Apply Rule XI. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PRONOUNS. 
Each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 

394. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separately j as 
" Each of his brothers is doing - well." 

395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them, taken separately 5 as, " Every man must account for himself." 

3%. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and 
signifies the one or the other ; as, " I have not seen eitlier." Hence to say, 
"Either of the three/ 7 is incorrect. 

397. Neither means not either ; that is, not one nor the other j as, 
' Neither of my friends was there." 

398. The demonstrative (2.) pronouns are those which 
precisely point out the things to which they relate. 

399. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Sing. Plu. 

This, These. 

That, Those. 

Former, Former. 

Latter, Latter. 

400. This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, — that and those to 
the most distant j as, u These gloves are superior to those. 7 ' " Both wealth and 
poverty are temptations 3 that tends to excite pride, this discontent." 

401. The indefinite are those that refer to things in an 
indefinite or general manner. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

402. Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. Of 
these pronouns, one and other are declined like nouns. An- 
other is declined in the singular, but it wants the plural. 

Sing. Plu. 

403. Norn. Other, Others. 
Poss. Other's, Others'. 
Ohj. Other, Others. 

Sing. Plu. 

404. Norn. One, Ones. 
Poss. One's, Ones'. 
Ohj. One, Ones. 

Vv e say, " This book," but " These books ;" also, " One man," " Twenty 
men :" hence, 

405. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must 

agree in number with the nouns to which they belong. 

Why is it so called ? 393. Which are singular ? 399. Which plu- 

Which are they ? 393. ral ? 399. 

What does each refer to ? 394. Give What do this and these refer to ? 400. 

an example. What do that and those refer to I Giv« 

What does every ta»iaie to ? 395. Give an example. 400. 

an example. What does indefinite mean ? 81. 

What does either relate to ? 396. Give What is an indefinite pronoun ? 401. 

an example. Which are they? 402. 

What does neither mean ? 397. Will you decline other ? 403. 

What does demonstrative mean ? 398. Will you decline one! 404. 

What are demonstrative pronouns ? What note do you apply in parsing ad 

398. " jective pronouns ? Note 1. 

Which are they ? 399. 

(1.) Sc called from distribute, to divide among several. 
(2.) So called from demonstrate, to jn-ove or show precisely. 



PRONOUNS. 57 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
'I These two books belong to me" 

406. These is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative 
kind, in the plurax number, and belongs to books, according to 
Note I. 

Two is a numeral adjective, and belongs to books, by Note I 
Books, belong, &c. are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" Every man performs his part in " These men might remain with 

creation." us." 

*' Each man arrived at his station." " Those men make many pre 
" Either party can repair the in- tences to religion." 

jury." " All rational beings desire happi- 
" Some persons cannot acquire ness." 

wealth." " By application almost any boy 
" Many people obtain riches with may acquire an honorable 

apparently little exertion." rank in his class." 

" One boy labors for his improve- " Good and virtuous men will, 

ment." sooner (1.) or later (1.), attain 

" This man neglects his affairs." to happiness." 

" The old bird feeds her young ones" 

407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in 

the COMMON GENDER, THIRD PERSON PLURAL, in the OBJECTIVE 

case, and governed by feeds, agreeably to Rule VIII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
" One boy influences many oth- others spend their time in idleness ; 
ers." the former will receive praise, the 

" None act their part too well." latter censure." 
" Some scholars study diligently ; 

We cannot say ; " Them run/ 7 but " They run" : hence, 
Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the 
verb, it should be in the nominative case. 

It is very common for persons in conversation to say, " Them books/ 7 
1 Them knives/ 7 &c. instead of " Those books/ 7 '*■ Thoseknives/ 7 &c. The 
incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal in the place of 
an adjective pronoun : hence, 

Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the 
place of these or those. 

In the phrase, " These two books," a Them will go." 
&c. will you parse these? two ? 406. " Him and me went to church." 

Will you now take the book, and parse " Art thee well ?" 
the remaining exercises under Note I ? " Him who is diligent will improve." 

In the phrase, " The old bird feeds her Would you say, " Them knives," oi 

young ones," will you pass ones? 407. " These knives" ? Why? III. 

Will you correct by Note I. the follow- In what does the incorrectness con- 
ing examples, as I read them to you ? sist ? III. 

" He will not come this two hours." Will you correct the following expres- 

" I dislike those sort of books." sions ? 

" I have two canes j you may have any " Them boys are very idle." 
of them." " Bring me them pens." 

Do we say, " They run," or " Them " Which of them three things do yoft 

run"? Why ? Note II. prefer ?" 

Will you now correct, by Note II. the §£rThe pupil may next take the ezer- 

following examples as I read them to you ? cises to be loritten. 

(1.) Adverb. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjective 
pronoun ? One, having a demonstrative pronoun ? One, having an in- 
definite pronoun used as a noun ( 

Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the follow- 
ing phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — ,and then flung 
— away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise," 

Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I. ? One under 
Rule II. ? Rule III. ? Rule IV. ? Rule V. ? Rule VI. ? 



XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

408. In the sentence, " That man is happy, who lives virtuously/' the 
word wJw is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun man), and it is 
a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence, 

409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for 
some noun before it in the same sentence. 

410. There are three relative pronouns, viz. 

411. Who, which, and that. 

412. Wlio is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The man 
who came." 

413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, 
" The bird which sings," " The tree ichich I planted." 

414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons ; when we wish to dis- 
tinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person among many others ; 
as, " Which of the two is he ? " Which of them has gone V 7 

415. That, as a relative, is often used, in speaking either 
of persons or things, in the place of who or which ; as, __ 

" The boy that reads," or, " The boy who reads ;" " The bird that dew," or, 
" The bird which Hew ;" " The bench that was made," or, " The bench which 
was made." 

That is used in preference to who or ichich, in the following cases :« — 

1. In speaking both of persons and things 5 as, "The man and the beast 
that I saw, perished." 

2. In speaking of children j as, " The child that I met." 

3. After the adjective same ; as, " He is the same man that we saw yester- 
day." 

4. After the superlative degree j as, " He is the wisest man that the world 
ever produced." 

5. After the relative -who ; as, " Who that reflects." 

415 — 1. Exception. TJwJ, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im 
mediately before it ; as, '• He is the same man with that you were acquainted." 
For with that, read with whom. It is remarkable, however, that, when the ar- 
rangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposition 5 as, " He is 
the same man that you were acquainted with." 

XXXV. Iu the sentence, " That man is speaking of persons ? Give an example 

happy, who lives virtuously," what part 414. 

of speech is who ? Why ? 408. What When may that he used ? 415. 

kind ? Why ? 408. Is it correct to say, " The child who" ? 

What is a relative pronoun ? 409. Why not? "The same man who"? Why 

Will you name them ? 411. not? " The wisest man which" ? Why 

When do we use iclw 7 Give an exam- not ? " Who, who reflects" ? Why not ? 

pie. 412. 415 : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 

When do we use which"! Give an ex- What exception is mentioned? 415 — 1 

ample. 413. Give an example. 415 — 1. 
In what cases do we use which, in 



PRONOUNS. 50 

416 — 1. We can say, " The man who/' or u The men who," using the 
relative who in speaking" either of one man or more than one : who, then, is of 
both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Who, Who. 

Poss. Whose, Whose. 

Obj. Whom. Whom. 

417. Which and that are cf both numbers, but they are not declined, ex 
cept that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ; as, " Is 
there any other doctrine whose followers are punished V 7 

418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three 
words ; as, " Philosophy whose end," for " the end of which." 

419. Antecedent signifies going before. 

420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which the 
relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative 5 as, " John, 
who has gone." Here, John is the antecedent ofivho. 

421. When you are told that who, which, and that are relatives, you 
should not get the impression that the last two are always relatives 3 for that is 
a relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which ; that is, when who 
or which may be used in its place, without destroying the sense 5 as, " Here is 
the knife that I found," which can be altered to " Here is the knife which I 
found," without injury to the sense. 

422. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing, 
is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an 
adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction 5 as, " He studies that he 
may learn." 

423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes as a rela- 
tive pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a conjunc- 
tion. 

424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal pronouns, 
they should therefore agree with nouns in tlie same particulars and by the same 
rule. Rule V. will therefore apply to both. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" That man is happy who lives virtuously." 
425. That is a demonstrative pronoun, of the singular 
number, and belongs to man, by Note I. 

Who is a relative pronoun, of the masculine gender, third 
person singular, and agrees with man, by Rule V. It is in 
the nominative case to lives, according to Rule VI. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

" That man is fortunate who es- " I met the same man in the mar- 
capes censure." ket to-day (1.), that I met 
" The girl whom I saw, perished." yesterday in the street." 

How many numbers has w/w ? 41.6. When is that an adjective pronoun.'' 

Will you decline it ? 416 — 1. Give an example. 422. 

How many numbers have which and When a conjunction ? Give an exam- 

that ? Are they declined? 417. pie. 422. 

What exception to this ? 417. - How many different parts of speech 

When whose is used as the possessive may that represent- ? 423. 

case of which, how many words does it What is the rule for the agreement of 

represent ? Give an example. 418. relative pronouns ? 424. 

What is the meaning of antecedent ? Will you parse that in the phrase, 

419. "That man" r 425. 

What is the antecedent of a pronoun? In the sentence, ;t That man is happy 

Give an example. 420. who lives virtuously," will you parso 

Is that always a relative ? 421. who 1 425. 

When is it a relative ? Give an ex- Will you now ta^e the book, and parse 

ample. 421. the remaining exercises ? 

(1.) Adverb. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" You, who came first, should re- " That house, which stands on the 

tire first." hill, once (1) belonged to me." 

" You taught the boy whose hat I " The boy whom I instruct learns 

found." well." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" The man which I saw" 
426. Incorrect ; because, in speaking of persons, who, whose, 
or whom is generally to be used. It should therefore read, " The 
man whom I saw." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 

" The bird whom I killed had made " Thou who are in prosperity must 
her nest." assist me in adversity." 

" The man which visited me has " He which shuns vice does gen- 
left town." erally practise virtue." 

M That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your charity, 
tuous." should be grateful." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative who ? One, 
containing which ? One, containing that ? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly 

used ? " The man sins shall die." " The boy studies will 

learn." " The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill 

up the following with one or more words that will make sense ? " In- 
temperance evils." " If truth sorry." 

Q. Will you embrace in different sentences, each of the following 
words? Washington* Columbus, Captain Cook, Indians, Wisdom, 
Riches, James Monroe. 



XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE 

PRONOUNS. 

427. " I took wJiat you gave me." 

11 I took that which you gave me." 

" I took the thing which you gave me." 

" I took those things which you gave me." 

428. By examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the word 
what, in the first example, means the same as the words in italics in the suc- 
cessive ones : the word what, then, is clearly a pronoun ; and because it stands 
for more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word before 
the relative which, in the phrase " that which ; " or " the thing which," is the 
antecedent of which. Hence, 

429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiva- 
lent tO THAT WHICH. 

Instead of saying, " The man which I tences which mean the some as " I took 

saw," what should I say ? Why ? 426. what you gave me" ? 427. 

Will you correct and parse the remain- What words, then, does what stand for ' 

ing exercises, and then take the exercises 428. 

.0 he written ? Why is what a pronoun ? 428. 

XXXVI. Will you repeat those sen- Why a compound pronoun? 428. 

(1.) Adverb. 

• Thus, " Washington was a true patriot," &c. The pupil may write, several sentences on each word. 



NOUNS. 61 

430. Who, which, and wliat have sometimes the words ever or sower an- 
nexed (1.) to them : and each combination of this sort is called a compound 
relative ; as 7 whoever, ichosoever, whicfiever, whichsoever, &c. They are not 
often used. 

431. Who, u)hich, and what are called interrogatives, or relatives of the in- 
terrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions 5 as 7 " Who is he V 
" Which is the book 1" " What are you doing V These relatives, you per- 
ceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase contained in 
the answer, which is called a subsequent, because it follows after the relative 5 
as, " Whom did you see V* Ans. " John." Here John is the subsequent to 
which whom refers. 

432. Hence it follows, that antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each 
other in meaning 3 the former signifying going before, the latter following after. 

433. Wlietlier was formerly made use of to express interrogation 3 as, 
"Whether of these shall I choose ? ;? but it is now seldom used, the interrogative 
which supplying its place. 

434. Which, what, and, as we have already seen, that, when joined to 
nouns, are adjective pronouns 5 as, " unto which promise our twelve tribes. 77 

43o. When what and which are joined to nouns in asking questions, they 
are called interrogative adjective pronouns 5 as, " Which horse did he take V 

436. In some instances, we find wJiat used in the sense of an interjection ; 
as, " What I take my money, and then my life V 7 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" I will leave what is useless." 

437. What, in the example above, means the same as " that which/-' or 
" the thing which 77 j we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it has 
the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first parse it 
as standing for thing, and secondly for which. 

What is a compound relative pronoun, and is equivalent 
to " that which," or " the thing which." In representing thing, 
it may be considered a pronoun of the third person singu- 
lar, neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed by 
leave, according to Rule VIII. 

What, in representing which, may be considered a relative 
pronoun of the third person singular, neuter gender, and 
relates to thing for its antecedent, according to Rule V. and in 
the nominative case to is, by Rule VI. 

Is is a neuter verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense — " 1. lam; 2. You are ; 3. He or which is" — made in the 
third PEP-SON singular, and agrees with which, the relative 
part of the pronoun what, according to Rule VII. 

Useless is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs 
to what, by Rule IV. 

How may what be described ? 429. When are what, which, and that adjec- 

Will you give three examples of com- tive pronouns ? Give an example. 434. 
pound pronouns formed by annexing ever Which of the relatives are sometimes 

or- soever 1 430. interrogative adjective pronouns ? When? 

What is the meaning of annexed 1 430. 435. 

When are who, which, and what called When I say, " What ! rob me of ray 

interrogatives ? 431. money, and then take my life ?" in what 

What are the nouns called, to which sense is what used ? 436. 
interrogatives refer ? 431. In the sentence, " I will leave what id 

What is the meaning of subsequent ? useless," how do you parse whatl is 7 

432. useless ? 437. 

Why so called ? 431. What does what stand for? 437. 

In the phrase, "Whom did you see ?" Do you parse it as one word or two? 

Jlns. "John"; which word is the subse- What two ? 437. 

quent ? 431. ftCf* The pupil may now parse the re- 

maining exercises on the pronoun what. 

" "" (1.) Placed aft or. 

6 F 



6% ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
" James will do what is proper." « William demands what I cannot 
" You heard what I said." give." 

" Whatever improves delights " They advocate what is excel- 
him." lent." 



XXXVII. OF THE VERB. 

438. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 
Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter. 

439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor is 
always the nominative case ; as, '« John runs." Active verbs 
are either transitive or intransitive. 

440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or 
may have an object after it, on which the action terminates ; 
as, " John beats William." 

441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has 
nor can have an object after it. 

442. Passive means suffering or receiving. 

443. When I say, " John is beaten by William/' is beaten is a verb, because 
it expresses action j and it is a passive verb, because it expresses the action 
received by John j and if John receives the action, then he is the object of it ■ 
hence, 

444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received. 

445. The object is always its subject or nominative case 

446. Active nominative, or actor, " John strikes William." 

447. Passive nominative, or object, " William is struck 
by John." 

448. By examining the foregoing- examples, you will see that when the verb 
is active, its nominative is likewise active} and when the verb is passive, its 
nominative is likewise passive. 

449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasions 
when we wish to state what has been done, without exposing - the author 5 thus, 
instead of saying, " William struck John/' I can, to avoid alluding to William, 
say, " John was struck." 

XXXVII. What is the meaning of In the example, " John is beaten by 

verbl* William, 5 ' which is the verb? Why? 

Why so called? 143. What kind? Why? 443. 

What is a verb ? 438. Which word is the object ? Why ? 443. 

What is an active verb ? 439. What, then, is a passive verb ? 444. 

What is always its nominative? Give Which is the nominative to a passive 

an example. 439. verb, the agent or the object ? 445. 

What is the meaning of transitive ?t of Is the nominative to an active verb act- 

intransitive ?% ive or passive? Give an example. 448. 

How may active verbs be divided ? 439. Is the nominative to a passive verb ac- 

When is'an active verb transitive ? Give tive or passive? Give an example. 448 
an example. 440. In what particular is the passive voice 

When is an active verb intransitive? a convenient tbrm of expression? Give an 

Give an example. 441. example. 449. 

What is the meaning of passive ? 442. What is the meaning of neuter ?$ 

* See question to 142. t See question to 1 50. t See question to 152. § See question to 157, 



MOOD. 63 

450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor pas- 
sive, expressing simply either being or existence in a certain 
state ; as, " He sits" " He is at home." 



XXXVIII. MOOD, OR MODE. 

451. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action 
or being. 

452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating 
or declaring a thing, or asking a question ; as, " I walk ;" 
"Do I walk?" 

453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi- 
bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or with- 
out asking a question ; as, " I may go ;" " May I go T" " He 
must read," <Slc. 

454. Of the subjunctive mood. The term subjunctive signifies subjoined 
or added to. 

455. When I say, " I will go, if he desire it," the phrase " if he desire it" is 
added on to the one before it : hence we say, " if he desire it" is in the sub- 
junctive mood. The term, however, is limited to such sentences as are pre- 
ceded by the conjunctions if, unless, although, except, lest, &c, which imply 
doubt or some uncertainty. 

456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt 
or uncertainty. 

457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different 
forms. It is equally correct to say, " If he is 'poor, he is respected," and " If 
he be studious, he will excel." The verbs be and is are both in the present 
tense ; and since each has the conjunction if before it, each is in the subjunc- 
tive mood. 

458. The phrase u If he be studious" means the same as " If he will be 
studious 3" it therefore plainly implies future time. 

459. On the contrary, in the phrase " If he is poor," the sense plainly is, 
"If he is dow, at the present time, poor," without any reference to future time. 

460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is implied j 
and in the other, both doubt and future time. 

What is a neuter verb ? Give an exam- How is the term subjunctive limited 

pie. 450. 455. 

How many kinds of verbs are there, and What is the subjunctive mood used for ? 

what are they ? 438. 456. 

XXXVIII. What is the meaning of How many different forms has it ? 457. 

mood? 166. Give an example of each. 457. 

What is mood ? 451. In what tense are the verbs be and is ? 

What is the meaning of indicative ? 457. 

168. In what mood is each with the con- 

What is the indicative mood used for ? junction if before it ? 457. 

Give ar example. 452. What does " If he be studious" mean, 

What is the meaning of potential ? 212. as it respects time ? 458. 

What is the potential mood used for? What tense, then, is referred to ? 458 

Give an example 453. What does " If he is poor" mean, in 

Wha. b the meaning of subjunctive? respect to time ? 459. 

454. What idea, then, is implied in the one 
In what mood is " If he desire it" ? form ? 460. 

455. What two ideas in the other form ? 460 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

461. The verb is corresponds with the common form of the verb to be, in 
the indicative mood, present tense j as, " I am, you are, he is :" — we will, 
therefore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the common form of the sub- 
junctive mood 5 and when the verb is not varied in the different persons, we 
will call it the subjunctive form, since this form is peculiar to this mood. You 
should here be informed that this distinction relates only to the present tense, 
it being customary to vary the terminations of the verb in the remaining tenses, 
as usual. 

462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use of the 
subjunctive mood : 

463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present 
tense, has a reference to future time, we should use the 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM, 

Present Tense. 

464. Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
has no reference to future time, we should use the 

COMMON FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou lovest, or ) 2. If ye love, or 
If you love. 5 ^ vou love. 

3. If he loves. 3. If they love. 

466. Other conjunctions, besides if, arc used before the subjunctive mood. 
J/is perhaps u»ed most frequently, because it implies doubt more strongly than 
most others. 

467. By the foregoing, you may perceive that when the verb is in the sub- 
junctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood; as, " He will not be 
pardoned unless he repent," that is, u unless he will repent ;" " If thou ever 
return, thou shouldst be thankful," that is, " if thou shouldst ever return." 

468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, com 
mon fonn, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it ; as, 
" I walk," the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive t>y prefixing if; thus, 
"If I walk." 

469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the sub 
junctive; as, " I can go" is the potential ; " If I can go," the subjunctive. 

470. Of the imperative mood. When I say, " John, mind your book," 
I command John to do something ; and because imperative means command 
ing, we say that mind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood. 

With what does the verb is correspond ? frequently in the subjunctive mood ? 466. 
461. What does " He will not be pardoned 

How is the verb varied in the common unless he repent" mean ? 467. 
for,m of the subjunctive mood? 461. What, tben, is understood ? 467. 

Why called common? How varied in " If thou ever return, tbou shouldst be 

the subjunctive form? Why called sub- thankful:" what does this mean ? 467. 
junctive? 461. What, then, is understood ? 467. 

How is this distinction limited? 461. What is always understood in this form ? 

How are the remaining tenses varied ? 467. 
461. How may a verb in the indicative mood 

When do we use the subjunctive form? be converted into the subjunctive ? 468. 
463, How can the potential be changed to 

Will you conjugate the verb love in this the subjunctive ? Give an example. 469 
form, in the present tense? 464. In what mood is "John, mind your 

When do we use the common form? studies?" Why? 470- 
$65. What is the meaning of imperative 1 

Why is tho conjunction if used most 470. 



MOOD. 65 

471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (214.) embraces the following 
particulars : 

1 . Command ; as ; " John, sk up." 

2. Entreaty ; as, " Do visit me." 

3. Exliorting ; as, u Remember my counsel." 

4. Permitting ; as, " Go in peace." 

472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, 
entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 

473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person ; as, 
" John, come to me ;" because, in uttering- a command, making an entreaty, 
&c. we must necessarily address some one 5 hence you can see the reason 
why this mood has but one person, viz. the second. 

474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in pres- 
ent time, to do any thing in past time, yesterday for instance 5 consequently a 
verb in this mood cannot have any past tense. 

475. When I command a person to do any thing, the performance of the 
command must take place hi a period of time subsequent to that of the com- 
mand 5 that is, in future time 5 but the command itself must, from the very 
nature of the case, take place in present time : this mood, therefore, cannot, 
strictly speaking, have any future tense : hence, 

476. A verb in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in 
the second person. 

477. Of the infinitive mood. In the phrases, " John begins to sing," 
" The boys begin to sing," " Thou beginnest to sing," you perceive that the 
verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of its 
different agents, John, the boys, and thou : hence to sing is said not to be 
limited either by person or number. 

478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitive, signifying not 
limited: hence, 

479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action 
not limited either by person or number. 

480. To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood 5 as, " Let 
me go/ 7 instead of" Let me to go ;" u I heard him say it," for u . I heard him 
to say it." This little word to, when used before verbs in this manner, is not 
a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should be so con- 
sidered. 

481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five 
moods — the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the 
subjunctive, and the infinitive. 

How many particulars does this mood What is the meaning of infinitive ? 

embrace? 471. Why so many ? 214. 478. 

What, then, is the imperative mood In what mood is sing, in the phrases, 

used for? 472. Give an example of corn- " John begins to sing, ,} " The boys begin 

manding ? one of entreating? one of ex- to sing," "Thou beginnest to sing' ,? 

horting ? one of permitting ? 471. 477, 478. 

How many persons has this mood? 473. In what particulars is this mood reckon 

What person is it ? 473. ed not to be limited ? 477. 

Has this mood any past tense ? Why ? What, then, is the infinitive mood used 

174. for ? 479. 

When I command a person, when, if at What is the usual sign of this mood ? 

all, must the performance of the command 480. 
take place ? 475. Is it always expressed ? Give an exam 

When, or in what time, must the com- pie. 480. 
mand itself be given ? 475. How is the sign to to be parsed? 480 

Has this mood, then, any future tense ? Why parsed with the verb ? 480. 
475. How many moods are there, and what 

How many tenses, then, has it ? How are they ? 481. 

6* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



XXXIX. OF TENSE. 

482. The present tense expresses what is now taking 
place ; as, " John swims/ 5 

483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons long 
since dead 3 as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 

484. The present tense, preceded by the words when, before, after, as soon 
as, &c, is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action 3 as, 
' When he arrives, he will hear the news.' 7 

485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which are in 
their nature unchangeable 3 as, " Truth is eternal 5" " William boldly asserted 
there was no God 5" properly, " is no God." 

486. In animated (1.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimes used 
for the imperfect 3 as, u He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants 5 
lie fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides among his 
soldiers,, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in 
time past, however distant; as, " John died." 

488. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, 
and conveys an allusion to the present time; as, "I have 
finished my letter." 

489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we 
use the imperfect tense 3 as, " John wrote yesterday j" but when no particular 
past time is specified, we use the perfect tense 3 as, " I have read Virgil manj 
times." 

490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that is 
past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually re- 
maining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has 
been done 3 whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a 
manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak 
of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in 
the present century 5" but if we speak of the last century, we say, " Philoso- 
phers made great discoveries in the last century."- — " lie has been much 
afflicted this year." " I have this week read the king's proclamation." " I 
have heard great news this morning." In these instances, He has been, I fiave 
read, and heard, denote things that are past 5 but they occurred in this year, 

XXXIX. What is the meaning ofpres- What does the perfect tense express . 

entl 173. Give an example. 488. 

What does the present tense express? "John wrote yesterday." What tense 

482. Give an example. 482. is the verb in here? 489. 

" Seneca reasons well." What tense is Why is this tense used ? 489. 

employed here ? Why? 483. " I have read Virgil many times." Why 

In the phrase " When he arrives," is the perfect tense used here ? 489. 

future time is alluded to : why, then, is What do both the perfect and imperfect 

the present employed ? 484. denote ? 490. 

Do we say, " There is," or " there was How does the former denote it ? 490. 

no God ?" Why ? 485. How does the latter ? 490. 

What is the meaning of animated? 486. Do we Fay, " Philosophers made," or 

Meaning of narrations ? 486. " have made, great, discoveries in the pres- 

" He enters the territory," <fcc. Why is ent century ?" Why ? 490. 

the present tense used ? 486. Which tense do we use in speaking of 

What is the meaning of imp er 'feet 1 181. the last century ? 490. Give an example. 

How came this term to be used, to de- 490. 

note an action past and finished ?* " I have this week read the king's proc- 

What does the imperfect tense express ? lamation." " I have heard great newa 

487. Give an example. 487. this morning." Which are the verbs used 

Meaning of perfect ?| in these two sentences? 490. 

(1.) Lively. (2.) Descriptions, or tell ng what has been done. 

* See question to 182. t Finished, or complete 



TENSES. PARTICIPLES. 67 

in this week, and to-day 3 and still there remain* a part of this year, week and 
day, whereof I speak. 

490—1. In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action 
is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author 
or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; but 
if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may 
say, " Cicero has written orations f f but we cannot say, " Cicero has written 
poems 5" because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking 
of priests in general, we may say, " They have, in all ages, claimed great 
powers ;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we 
speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now 
exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests Jiave 
claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great pow- 
ers 5" because that order is now totally extinct. 

491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place 
at some past time mentioned ; as, " I had finished my letter 
before my father returned." 

492. The first future tense expresses what will take place ; 
as, " John will come." 

493. The second future expresses what will have taken 
place, at or before some future time mentioned; as, " I shall 
have finished my business before the steam-boat starts." 

494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six 
variations, namely — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
the pluperfect, and the first and second future tenses. 



XL. OF PARTICIPLES. 

495. In the phrase, " I found a man laboring in the field," the word labor- 
ing shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb. When I 
say, " The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is joined to the 
noun man, to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 

496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different parts 
of speech j and since participle signifies partaking of, we will call such words 
as laboring, participles. 

What do they denote? When did these Give an example. 492. Why called first 

things occur ? 490. future ?* 

To what may the perfect tense in gen- What does the second future express ? 

eral be applied? What exception is men- Give an example. 493. 

tioned ? 490 — 1. How many tenses are there in all, and 

Do we say, " Cicero wrote," or " has what are they ? 494. 

written, orations ?" " Cicero wrote" or In what mood is " He runs" ? Why ? 

* has written, poems ?" Why ? 490—1. 452. " Does he run ?" Why ? 452. " I 

In speaking of priests, in general, why may run" ? Why ? 453. " Should I have 

do we say, "They have in all ages studied?" Why? 453. " If he accept" ? 

claimed great powers." 490 — 1. Why? 456. " If he accepts" ? Why* 

Can we say, " The Druid priests have 45G. " To sing" ? Why ? 4.79. 

claimed great powers" ? What should we In what tense is " He sings" ? Whv ? 

say ? Why ? 490—1. 482. " Did he sing ?" Why ? 487. " He 

What is the meaning of pluperfect 1 has read" ? 488. Why? "Had he writ- 

186. ten"? 491. Why 2 "Shall he go?" 

What does the pluperfect tense ex- 492. " I shall have gone" ? Why? 493. 

press ? 491. Give an example. 491. XL. What parts of speech does labor- 

Meaning of future ? 177. ing resemhle ? Give an example. 495. 

What does the first future express? What is the meaning of participle? 496 

*Ste 'luestion ('.» 191. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4D7. All participles are derived from verbs 3 thus, from labor comes labor 
ing ; from beat, beating ; rejoice, rejoicing, &c. : hence, 

498. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 

499. When I say, " John is writing," the participle writing shows what 
John is now doing-, but has not finished 3 writing, then, may be called a pres- 
ent participle : hence, 

500. The present participle expresses what is now taking 
place, but not finished. 

501 — 1. This participle always ends in ing ; as, sinning, fighting, weeping, 
loving, &c. There are many words of this termination, which are not parti- 
ciples 3 as, morning, evening, which are nouns ; uninteresting, unsatisfying, 
which are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed from verbs will 
furnish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all other 
words of the same termination j as, for instance, uninteresting, we know, is not 
a participle, because there is no such verb as uninterest, from which to form it. 

501. " The letter is written." Here the participle wHtten shows that the 
act of writing* is past and finished 3 it may then be called a perfect participle ; 
hence, 

502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and fin- 
ished. 

502 — 1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense 
with having ; thus, having written, having sung, &c. Here written and sung 
are perfect participles. 

503. " John, having written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless per- 
ceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealing 3 also, that the 
participle is composed of two words, having and written ; it may then be call- 
ed a compound participle, and because it denotes also an action past and finish- 
ed, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : hence, 

504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took 
place before something else mentioned. 

504 — 1. This participle is formed by placing the present participle having 
before the perfect participle of any verb 3 as, having fought, having ciphered. 



XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 

505. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you know 
because it makes sense joined with having] as, having struck. 

From what are all participles derived ? Having written, having sung. Which 

497 Give an example. 497. are the perfect participles here ? 502. 

What is a participle ? 498. " John, having written his letter, seal 

When I say, "John is writing," what ed it." Which took place first, the 

does writing show ? 499. writing or sealing ? 503. 

What, then, may it be called ? 499. Of what is this participle composed / 

What, then, is a present participle ? 503. 

500. What, then, may it be called ? 503. 

What does this participle always end What does having written denote in ref- 

in ? 500 — 1. Give an example. 500 — 1. erence to time and action? 503. 

Are all words ending in ing participles ? What may it thence be called ? 503. 

Give an example of nouns of this termi- What does a compound perfect parti 

nation ? of adjectives ? 500 — 1. ciple express? 504. 

How, then, can the participle be dis- How is this participle formed ? 504. 

tinguished ? Give an example. 500 — 1. Give an example. 504. 

" The letter is written." What does XLI. Striking, struck, having struck. 

the participle written show here ? What, Here are three different participles : can 

then, may it be called ? 501. you tell which is the present? Why? 

What is a perfect participle ? 502. 500. Porfect ? Why ? 503. Compound 

How may this participle always be perfect ? Why ? 503. 

enown 1 ' Give un example. 502—1. What kind of a participle is struck 1 

505- How do you know this? 505. 



VERBS. 69 

606. /*, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to be ; as, u I am, 
you are, he is :" now, by joining is with struck, we can form the passive veib 
is struck; " John strikes Joseph" is active 5 but "Joseph is struck by John" 
is passive. 

507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the 
same : hence, by means of the passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a 
different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, you will oftentimes 
£nd, contributes not a little to the variety and harmony of the language. 

508. By examining the conjugation of the verb to be, you will discover that 
it has, in all, ten variations : viz. am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, been, be, and 
being. Every passive verb must be composed of one of these ten variations, 
and lha perfect participle of any active transitive verb. Thus, taking was, and 
joining it with the perfect participle of the verb beat, namely, beaten, we form 
the passive verb was beaten, to which prefixing an object, or nominative case, 
we have the phrase, " William was beaten." 

509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always 
retains the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the verb to be has, be- 
fore it is incorporated with the participle ; thus, " He has been ;; is the indica- 
tive perfect, third person singular 3 then, " He has been rejected," is likewise 
the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, therefore, be 
difficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person of any passive verb, if you 
are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to be. 

From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following genepal rale : 

510. All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect 
participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be 



XLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 

511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the 
principal verbs are conjugated. 

512. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux- 
iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, be, have, and will. 

513. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that 
tense is called a compound one 5 and the tense formed by the principal \ £rb 
alone is called a simple tense. 



XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or 
by its having no sign except in asking a question ; as, " Who 
comes here V 9 

Of what verb is the verb is a varia- What fact is mentioned as worthy of 

tion ? 506. notice ? 509. 

Will you form a passive verb with is What mood, tense, number, and per- 

and struck ? 506. son is " He has been" ? 509. Is " He has 

" John strikes Joseph." How may the been rejected" ? 509. 

sense of this sentence be expressed by a What will make the mood, tense, &c. 

passive verb ? 506. of passive verbs familiar ? 509. 

What advantage does the use of the How are all passive verbs formed ? 510 

passive verb often afford us ? 507. XLII. What is the meaning of anxil- 

To what does it contribute ? 507. iaryl 196. 

How many variations has the verb to What are auxiliary verbs ? 511 

be in all ? 508. What are they ? 508. Will you name them ? 512. 

What will always compoee one part of What verbs are used both as auxiliary 

a passive verb ? 508. What tho other and principal verbs ? 512. 

part ? 508. XLIII. What is the sign of the indica- 
tive mood ' 514. Give an example. 514 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries 
may, can, must, might, could, would, and should ; as, " I 
could love," &,c. 

516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the 
conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest; as, 
" Unless he repent," &,c. 

517. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word 
to ; as, to sing. 

518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its 
always being in the second person, and by its agreement 
with thou, or ye, or you ; as, " Depart thou," &c. 



XLIV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE 
INDICATIVE. 

519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of 
the verb ; as, weep, remain, &c. ; excepting the occasional 
use of do ; as, "I do learn." 

520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, ex- 
cept did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is 
not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that 
it is in the imperfect ; as, " I fought." 

521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have; as, 
have loved. 

522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved. 

523. The first future has for its sign shall or will ; as, 
shall or will love. 

524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will 
have ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved. 

525. The indicative mood has six tenses. 

526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 

527. The potential mood has four tenses. 

528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 

529. The imperative mood has one tense. 



What is the sign of the potential mood ? 
515. Give an example. 515. 

What is the sign of the subjunctive 
mood ? 516. Give an example. 516. 

What is the sign of the infinitive mood ? 

517. Give an example. 517. 

What is the sign of the imperative ? 

518. Give an example. 518. 

XLIV. What is the sign of the pres- 
ant indicative . ? 519. Give an example. 
519. 

Sign of the imperfect ? 520. Give an 
example. 520. 



Sign of the perfect? 521. Give an ex- 
ample. 521. 

Sign of the pluperfect ? 522. Give an 
example. 522. 

Sign of the first future ? 523. Give an 
example. 523. 

Sign of the second future ? 524. Give 
an example. 524. 

How many tenses has the indicative 
mood ? 525. 

How many the subjunctive ? 526. 

How many the potential ? 527. 

How many the infinitive ? 528. 

How many the imperative f 569 






VERBS 



71 



XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily under- 
stand what I mean by voice ; but in grammar, its application is somewhat pe- 
culiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive nature 
of verbs. 

531. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combina- 
tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods 
and tenses. 

532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the 
active voice, and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 

533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im- 
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti- 
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, 
or d only when the verb ends in c ; as, 



Pres. Tense. 
I favor. 
I love. 



Imp. Tense. 
I favored. 
I loved. 



Perf. Participle. 
Favored. 
Loved. 



534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and 
perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular 



verb : as 



Pres. Tense. 
I am. 



Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 
I was. Been. 



535. The regular verb love, and the irregular verb to be, 
are conjugated as follows : — 

CONJUGATION. 

TO LOVE and TO BE. 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTED. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

iSENT TENSE. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


NEUTER. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


1 Pers. I love. 


1 Pers. I am loved. 


1 Pers. I am. 


2 Pers. You love. 


2 Pers. You are loved. 


2 Pers. You are. 


3 Pers. He loves. 


3 Pas. He is loved. 


3 Pers. He is. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


4 Pers. We love. 


1 Pers. We are loved. 


1 Pers. We are. 


2 Pers. You love. 


2 Pers. You are loved. 


2 Pers. You are. 


3 Pers. They love. 


3 Pers. They are loved. 


3 Pers. They are. 



XLV. What does voice mean in gram- 
mar? 530. 

Meaning of conjugation 7 217. 

What is the conjugation of an active 
verb styled ? 532. 

What the conjugation of a passive 
verb ? 532. 



When are verbs called regular ? 533. 
Give an example. 533. 

Will you repeat alter me the present 
tense, and name the imperfect tense and 
perfect participle, of the verbs favor ? 
love 7 533. 

When is a verb called irregular ? 53-1 
Give an example. 534 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 

1. I loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 

Plural. 

1 . We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 



Singular. 

1. I have loved. 

2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 

Plural. 

1. We have loved. 

2. You have loved. 

3. They have loved. 

Singular. 

1. I had loved. 

2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 

Plural. 

1. We had loved. 

2. You had loved. 

3. They had loved. 

Singular. 

1. I shall or will love. 

2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I was loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 

Plural. 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. They were loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 
Plural. 

1. We have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. 

3. They have been loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. I had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 
Plural. 

1. We had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 

3. They had been loved. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular 

1. I was. 

2. You were. 

3. He was. 
Plural 

1. We were. 

2. You were 

3. They were. 

Singular. 

1. I have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 
Plural. 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been, 

Singular. 

1. I had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 
Plural. 

1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. They had been. 



Plural. 

1. We shall or will love. 

2. You shall or will love. 

3. They shall or will 

love. 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will be lov- 1. 
ed. 2. 

2. You shall or will be 3. 
loved. 

3. He shall or will be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1. We shall or will be 1. 
loved. 2. 

2. You shall or will be 3. 
loved. 

3. They shall or will be 

loved. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. I shall have loved. 

2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 



Plural. 

1. We shall have loved. 

2. You will have loved. 

3. They will have loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall have been lov- 1. 

ed. 2. 

2. You will have been 3. 

loved. 

3. He will have been 

loved. 
Plural. 

1. We shall have been 1. 

loved. 2. 

2. You will have been 3. 

loved. 

3. They will have been 

loved. 



Singular. 
I shall or will be. 
You shall or will be. 
He shall or will be. 



Plural. 
We shall or will be. 
You shall or will be. 
They shall or will be 



Singular. 
I shall have been. 
You will have been. 
He will have been. 



Plural. 
We shall have been. 
You will have been. 
They will have been. 



Will you conjugate love in the present 
tense, active voice, indicative mood ? 
535. In the imperfect ? perfect ? plu- 



perfect ? first future ? second future i 
present passive ? imperfect ? perfect? 
pluperfect ? first future ? second future ? 



TENSES. 



73 



Singular. 

1. I may or can love. 

2. You may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 



Plural. 

1. We may or can love. 

2. You may or can love. 

3. They may or can 

love 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should love. 

2. You might, cculd, 

would, or should 
love. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should 
love. 

Plural. 
1 We might, could, 
would, or should 
love. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
love. 

3. They might., could, 

would, or should 
love. 

Sing?ilur. 

1. I may or can have 

loved. 

2. You may or can have 

loved. 

3. He may or can have 

loved. 
Plural. 

1. We ma, or can have 

loved. 

2. You may or can have 

loved. 

3. They may or can 

have loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. I may or can be lov- 

ed. 

2. You may or can be 

loved.' 

3. He may or can be 

loved. 
Plural. 

1. We may or can be 

loved. 

2. You may or can be 

loved/ 

3. They may or can be 

loved. 
IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 
Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I may or can have 

been loved. 

2. You may or can have 

been loved. 

3. He may or can have 

been loved. 
Plural. 

1. We may or can have 

been loved. 

2. You may or can have 

been loved. 

3. They ma}' or can 

have been loved. 



Singular. 

1. I may or can be. 

2. You may or can be. 

3. He may or can be. 



Plural. 

1. We may or can be. 

2. You may or can be. 

3. They may or can be. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should be. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

3. He might, could. 

would, or should 
be. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 



Singular. 

1. 1 may or can have 

been. 

2. You may or can have 

been. 

3. He may or can have 

been. 
Plural. 

1. We may or can have 

been. 

2. You may or can have 

been. 

3. They may or can have 

been. 



Will you conjugate the verb to be, or 
am, in the present? the imperfect ? per- 
fect? pluperfect? first future? second 
future ? 

Will you name the first person singu- 
lar, of the present indicative, active and 
passive, of love, and the first person sin- 
gular of the verb to be7 

7 



The second person in like manner? the 
third ? the first person plural ? second 
person plural? third? first person singu- 
lar, imperfect? second person? third? 
first person plural ? second person plural ? 
third ? first person singular, perfect? 
second person? third? first person plu- 
ral ? second ? third ? 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, 

or should 
loved. 

2. You might, 

would, or 
have loved. 

3. He might, 

would, or 
have loved. 
Plural. 

1. We might, 

would, or 
have loved. 

2. You might, 

would, or should 
have loved. 

3. They might, 

would, or 
have loved 



would, 
have 

could, 
should 

could, 
should 



could, 
should 

could, 



could, 
should 



PLUPERFECT TENSE, 
Singular. 

1. I mi glit, could, would, 

or should have 
been loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 
Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

2. You might, could. 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 



Singular. 
I might, could, 
or should 
been. 



2. You might, 

would, or 
have been. 

3. He might, 

would, or 

have been. 

Plural. 

1. We might, 

would, or 
have been. 

2. You might, 

would, or 
have been. 

3. They might, 

would, or 
have been. 



Singular 

1. If Hove. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he loves. 

Plural 

1. If we love. 

2. If ycu love. 

3. If they love. 



1. 



3. 



Singular. 
If I love. 
If you love. 
If he love 

Plural. 
If we love. 
If vou love. 



3. If they love. 



Singular 
If I loved. 
If you loved. 
If he loved. 

Plural. 
If we loved. 
If you loved. 
If thev loved i 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Common Form. 

Singula?'. 

1. If I am loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If he is loved. 

Plural. 
1 . If we are loved. 
% If you are loved. 
3. If they are loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 

Singula?*. 

1. If I be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved, 

3. If they be loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Common Form. 
Singular. 

1. If I was loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he was loved. 

Plural. 

1. If vre were loved. 

2. If you were loved. *- 

3. If they were loved. 



Singular. 
If I am. 
If you are. 
If he is. 

Plural. 

1. If we are. 

2. If you are. 

3. If they are. 



Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 
Plural. 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 



Singular. 

1. If I was. 

2. If you were. 

3. If he was* 
Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were* 

3. If they werei 



would, 
have 

could, 
shoulo 

could, 
should 



could, 
should 



Will you conjugate love in like man- 
ner, through each person and voice of 
the pluperfect ? first and second futures ? 
present potential? imperfect? perfect? 
pluperfect ? present subjunetive, com- 
mon form? subjunctive form? imperfect, 
common form? subjunctive form? per- 
fect? pluperfoct? first and second fu- 
tures ? 



Will you conjugate love in the present 
indicative active ? imperfect ? perfect ? 
pluperfect ? first and second futures ? 
present passive ? imperfect ? perfect ? 
pluperfect ? first and second futures ? 
present indicative of to be? imperfect? 
psrfect? pluperfect? first and second fu 
tures? 



TENSES. 



75 



Singular. 
If I loved. 
If you loved. 
If he loved. 

- Plural. 
If we loved. 
If you loved. 



3. If they loved. 



Subjunctive Form. 

Singular. 

1. If I were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



Singular. 

1 . If I were. 

2. If vou were. 

3. If lie were. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 



Hie remaining tenses are all of the Common Form. 



Singular. 

1. If I have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If lie has loved. 

Plural. 
i. If we have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If they have lcved. 



3. 



PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 
If I have been loved. 
If you have been 

loved. 
If he has been loved. 

Plural. 
If we have been 

loved. 
If you have been 

loved. 
If they have been 
loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I have been. 

2. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. 

Plural. 

1. If we have been. 

2. If you have been. 

3. If they have been. 



Singular. 
If I had loved. 
If vou had loved. 
If he had loved. 

Plural. 
If we had loved. 
If you had loved. 



3 If they had loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 
f. If I had been loved. li 

2. If you had been loved. 2. 

3. If he had been loved, 3. 

Plural. 

1. If we had been loved. 1. 

2. If you had been k>v- 2. 

ed. 3. 

3. If they had been lov*d. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will love. 

2. If you shall or will 

love. 

3. If he shall or wili love. 



Singular. 
1. If I shall &r will 
loved. 

oved. 

3. If he shall or will be 
loved. 



be 1. 



you shall or will bo 



Shigular. 
If I had been. 
If you had beeiii 
If he had been. 

Plural. 
If we had been* 
If you had been. 
If they had been. 



Singular. 
If I shall ar will be. 
If you snail or WiV 

be. 
If lie sha!l or will be. 



Will you conjugate love through each 
person of the present indicative active ? 
passive ? the neuter verb to be ? also in 
the imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? first 
and second futures ? present potential ? 
imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? present 
subjunctive, in both forms? perfect? 
pluperfect ? first and second futures ? 

What is the present infinitive active of 
love? present passive? present of to be? 
perfect active of love ? perfect passive ? 
perfect of to he 1 present participle active 
of love ? present passive ? present of to 
be? perfect of love ? perfect of to be? 
compound perfect of love, in the active ? 
in the passive of to be ? 

In what voice and mood is " I love" ? 



"Thev^ 



,>; ?« 



They are loved" ? u Are 



they loved ?" " 1 do love" ? What is the 
force of do ? In what voice and mood is 
« The man loved" ? " He has loved" ? 



"He has been loved" ? "Has he been 
loved ?" " She had loved"? "She had 
been loved"? " We shall love"? " We 
shall be loved" ? " Shall I have been 
loved ?" " May I leve ?" " May I be 
loved ?" u She may have loved" ? " She 
may ha*e been lcved" ? " If I love" ? 
"If be be loved"? "If ha is loved"? "If 
I love*" ? " If I were loved" ? " If I was 
loved" ? 

In wha* tense is " They love" ? " Ye 
are loved" ? " She did love" ? " We Avore 
loved"? "They shall love" ? "They 
shall be loved" ? " I may be loved" ' 
"If she has been loved"? 

In what number and person is u I 
love" ? " We love" ? " He does love* t 
" The man did love" ? " The men were 
loved"? "If he love"? "If I was"? 
" If I were"? " If ye have been" i " If 
ye have loved" ? " You ma? be lcved" ' 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plural. Plural 

1. If we shall or will, 1. If we shall or will be 

love. loved. 

2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be, 

love. loved. 

3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 

love. be loved. 



Plural. 

1. If we shall or wfll be. 

2. If you shall or will 

be. 

3. If they shall or will 

be. 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall have loved. 

2. If you shall have lov- 

ed. 

3. If he shall have loved. 



Plural. 

1. If we shall have lov- 

ed. 

2. If you shall have lov- 

ed. 

3. If they shall have 

loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall have been 

loved. 

2. If you shall have been 

loved. 

3. If he shall have been 

loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we shall have been 
loved. 

2. If you shall have been 
loved. 

3. If they shall have 
been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 
If I shall have been. 
If you shall have 

been. 
If he shall have been. 



Plural. 
If we shall have been. 
If you shall have 

been. 
If they shail have 

been 



2. 



Singular. 
Love you, or do you 
love. 

Plural. 
Love you, or do you 
love. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

2. Be you loved, or do 

you be loved. 

Plural. 

2. Be you loved, or do 

you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. To be loved. 
Per/. To have been lov- 
ed. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. 
Perf. Loved. 
Compound Perf. Hav- 
ing- been loved. 

536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the 
conjugation of verbs, the following ? ynopsis is given. The pupil can take it 
separately, or be taught it in connection with the other persons of the verb, by 
substituting thou for you, in the foregoing conjugation. 



Pres. To love. 
Per/. To have teved. 



Sijigiuav. 
2. Be you, or do you be. 

Plural. 
2. Be you, or do you be, 



Pres. To be. 

Per/. To have been. 



Pres. Loving, 
Perf. Loved. 
Cofnpwind Per/. 
ing loved. 



Hav 



Pres. Being. 
Per/ Been. 
Compound Per/ 
ing been. 



Hav- 



Ia love, as, " They love," a regular or 
Irregular verb ? why? 533. active or pas- 
sive ? 439. What moot! is it in ? why ? 
452 tense? why? 482. number? person? 
What does love agree with? Rule VI f. 

Is are, as, " They are," a regular or 
irregular verb? why? 534. passive or 
neuter i why ? 450. What mood is it in ? 
why? 452. tense? why? 482. number? 
person? Rule for its agreement? Vtl. 

What is the present imperative of love ? 
present, infinitive? 

What mocd and tense is " Love you*' ? 
is " To have been loved" ? 

Will you conjugate learn in the present 
Indicative active? passive? perfect act- 
ive ? perfect passive ? present potential 
active ? passive ? imperfect active ? pas- 



sive? imperative present active? passive? 
perfect infinitive active? passive? present 
subjunctive active in both forms ? passive ? 
perfect infinitive? future active? passive? 
W r hat kind of verb (that is, regular or 
irregular), what voice, mood, tense, num- 
ber, and person is " I sing" ? " We are 
formed"? "He is"? "You are deter- 
mined"? "It rains"? " It has happen- 
ed" ? " The man was respected" ? "The 
boys did study" ? " If he improve" ? " Un- 
less he repent" ? "Although she be dis- 
aopointed" ? " He may depart" ? " De- 
part now"? "To love"? "To sing"? 
v ' To be sung"? " To rejoice" ? " To have 
wept" ? " To have been seen" ? " To have 
been found ? 



TENSES. 



77 



Pres. Thou lovest. 

Imp. Thou lovedst. 

Per/, Thou hast loved. 

Plup. Thou hadst lov- 
ed. 

1 Fut. Thou shall or 
wilt love 

ZFut. Thou wilt have 
loved. 

537. 
Pres. Thou mayst or 



Synopsis with Thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Thou art loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
Thou hast been loved. 
Thou hadst been loved. 



Thou art. 
Thou wast. 
Thou hast been. 
Thou hadst been. 



canst love. 
Imp. Thou 



fhtst, 



couldst, wouldst 

shouldst love. 
Perf. Thou mayst or 

canst have loved. 
Plup. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have loved. 



Thou shalt or wilt be Thou shalt or wilt be. 

loved. 
Thou wilt have been Thou wilt have been. 

loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Thou mayst or canst be 

loved. 
Thou rnig-htst, coukist, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be loved. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been loved. 



Thou mayst or canst be. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



538, 

Pres. If thou lovest. 
Imp. If thou lovedst. 

539. 

Pres. If thou love. 
Imp. If thou loved. 

540. 

Perf. If thou hast loved. 

Plup. If thou hadst lov- 
ed. 

1 Fut. If thou shalt or 
wilt love. 

? Fut. If thou shalt have 
loved. 



Common Form, 
If thou art loved. 
If thou wast loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 

If thou be loved. 
If thou wert loved. 

Common Form. 

If thou hast been loved. 
If thou hadst been loved. 



If thou art. 
Tf thou wast. 



If thou be. 
If thou wert. 



If thou hast been. 
If tliou hadst been. 



If thou shalt or wilt be If thou shalt or wilt be. 

loved. 
If thou shalt have been If thou shalt have been. 

loved. 



Interrogative Form. 






INDICATIVE PRESENT. 




Singular. 




Singular. 


1. Am I loved ? 


1. 


Ami? 


2. Are you loved ? 


2. 


Are you ? 


3. Is he loved ? 


3. 


Is he ? 


Plural. 




Plurai. 


1. Are we Joved ? 


1. 


Are we ? 


2. Are you loved ? 


2. 


Are you ? 


3. Are they loved 1 


3. 


Are they ? 



541. 

Singular. 

1. Do Hove? 

2. Do you love ? 

3. Does he love ? 

Plural. 
\ . Do we love ? 

2. Do you love? 

3. Do they love ? 
542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing 1 conjugation that the 

tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding - ones 
of the indicative, except the following, namely, the present and imperfect 



Will you give the synopsis of love joined 
with thou through the indicative active ? 
oassive ? Neuter verb to be? 

Will you name the synopsis of learn in 
the first person in the active voice, through 
each mood and tense ? Will you repeat 
the two tenses of the infinitive and the 
three participles ? Synopsis of honor, in 

7 # 



like manner through the passive? also the 
synopsis of the verb to be? Give the synop- 
sis of desire in the active, like love ; in the 
passive; verb to be; first person plural 
active ; passive ; to be ; third person act- 
ive ; passive ; to be. 

What mood does tho subjunctive resom- 
We in ks tenses? 549. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the veili lo be; the present and imperfect of the passive; the present and 
the second future active. The last, however, corresponds in termination, but 
not in formation. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the 
conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form, when 
no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly understood ; as, 
" Were I to go, he would not follow ;' ; " Had he known me, he would have 
treated me differently ;" that is, " If I were to go/ 7 and u If he had known." 
Examples of this description are conjugated as follows : 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Were I. 1. Were we. 

2. Were you. 2. Were you. 
% Were he. 3. Were they. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Had f loved. 1. Had we loved. 

2. Had you loved. 2. Had you loved. 

3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved. 

544. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1.) ended in st; 
as, " Thou hast," " Thou wast," &c. This form is still retained by that re- 
spectable class of persons denominated (2 ) Friends, and in the Sacred (3.) 
Scriptures. (3.) 

545. Eth, lor the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4.) very 
generally till within a recent (5.) period, especially on grave (6.) and didactic (7.) 
subjects ; as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear 5" " Simple multiplica- 
tion te.adiet.ii to repeat," &c. But the custom of the present day is decid- 
edly (8.) against the usage. (9.) 

546. The Scriptures abound (10.) with instances of the use of the pronoun 
ye for you ; as, " Ye are the salt of the earth j." but it is scarcely to be met 
with in any standard works of modern date. 

547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb. 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

Singular. Singular. Singular. 

1. 1 love. 1. I am loved. 1. I am. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art. 

3. He loveth or loves. 3. He is loved. 3. He is. 

What exceptions? 549. By whom is this termination still re- 
How does the second future differ? 542. tained? 544. In what writings ? 544. 
Will you explain the difference? 542. Meaning of Sacred Scriptures? 544. 
What is the sign of the subjunctive What form of the third person singula> 

mood? 516. Is it always expressed ? 542. obtained till recently? 545. Give an ex- 
Give an example. 542. Will you supply ample. 545. 

the conjunction ? Meaning of obtained? 545. Of recent? 

Will you conjugate the verb to be in the 545. 

subjunctive mood, imperfeet tense, without On what subjects was the termination 

its usual sign f In like manner conjugate cth used in writing ? 545. 

love in the pluperfect. Meaning of grave? of didactic ? 545. 

Will you conjugate love in the present In what writings do we find ye used foi 

active, interrogative form ? passive? neu- you? 546. 

ter verb to be? Is it common in modern works ? 546. 

In what voice, mood, tense, number Will you conjugate love in the present 

and person is "Do I study?" " Did she active, according to the ancient usage? 

study ?" " Were they dismissed ?" " Are 547. passive ? neuter verb to be? 

we?" In what number and person is " He 

In what did the second person singular hath"? "He hates"? "Thou lovest"? 

of all verbs formerly end ? 544. Give an "Thou hast"? "He learneth" ? "Ye 

example. 514. learn" ? He rejoiceth" ? " Thou art re- 



Meaning of formerly? 544. joiced"? "Thou art"? "He weepeth 



11 > 



* K.vcepting art. 

l.: Name time a^o. (2.) Called. (3.) The Bible. (4.) Prevailed. (5.) Late. (6.) Seriom 

:?.! Abounding in j.recepts, or insfnjfcrVe. (?.) Positively (9.) Use. (10.) Have many 



VERBS 79 

Plural. Plural. Plural. 

1. We love. 1. We are loved. 1. We are. 

2. Ye or you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 

548. [O^For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the learner 
is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which profess to fur- 
nish him with a sure and infallible guide to the true and proper use of the 
English language. 

RXJZiE TFXk 

The nominative case governs the verb in number and 

person. 

UTILE VII. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number 

and person. 
RXTI.E VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" William was admired for his prudence." 

549. William is a proper noun, of the third person, sin- 
gular NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and ill the NOMINATIVE 

case to was admired, agreeably to Rule VI. 

Was admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to 
admire — " Pres. admire ; Imp. admired ; Perf. part, admired. 1. I 
was admired ; 2. You were admired ; 3. He or William was ad- 
mired" — made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with William 
according to Rule VII. 

For is a preposition. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, and agrees with William, accord- 
ing to Rule V. — "Norn, he ; Poss. his" — made in the possessive 
case, and governed by prudence, by Rule I. 

Prudence is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by 
for, by Rule X. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" John was applauded for his elo- " The girl was ridiculed by her 
quence." companions." 

* The king was crowned at West- " Susan was respected for hei vir- 
minster Abbey." tuous conduct. 

" Thomas has been esteemed. " "Jame'fwill be rewarded by his 

" The business will be regulated." instructer." 

'Addition teacheth"? "He that hath was admired ? 549. for? 549. hist 549 

ears"? "He that sinneth" ' "Thou prudence? 549. 

.ovedst" ? " Thou mightst, couldst, What is a passive verb ? 444. How 

wouldst, or sbouldst have lamented"? formed? 5U). Why is admired regular? 

What is the rule for the agreement of 53:3. 

the verb? rule for the nominative? rule Why is for a preposition? 246. Why 

by which verbs govern the objective case ? is /<?> a pronoun ? 

"William was admired for his pru- Will you now parso the remaining ex 

denee." Will you parse TTiUiam? 519. eicisns? 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. 

« We may be esteemed." " Justice may have been stayed." 

" He might have been promoted." « The task must be performed." 
" William would have been de- " We should not (1.) be easily (1.) 
throned." disheartened in a good cause." 

" If he be learned." 

550. If is a copulative conjunction. 

Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb te learn 
— " Pres. learn ; Imper. learned ; Perf part, learned. 1. If I be 
learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. If he be learned" — made in 
the subjunctive mood, subjunctive form, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with he, accord- 
ing to Rule VII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" If John be rewarded." "Although you wiW be disap- 

" If I am noticed." pointed." 

"Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected." 

" Although they are respected." " Except he repent." 

" Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl." 

" America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by 

lumbus." Susan." 

" John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure." 

" John's brother was wounded by " Pleasure is followed by pain." 

him." 

2. 

" An obedient son is deservedly " Unless great labor had been be- 

respected by his friends." stowed on William, he. would 

" An idle boy will be punished." have disappointed the expec- 

" Without knowledge, a man is tations of his parents." 

commonly (1.) despised." " He will not (1.) mind without 

corporal punishment." 

3. v**vw 

" The boy who visited me in Sep- " They that seek knowledge will 

tember died in the city of Bos- find it." 

ton." " That lion which was exhibited 

" The man whom I found perished in this town has been killed 

in a storm of snow." by his keeper." 

4. 

" I found(2.) John and William (3.) n I have assisted him and his sister 

in the garden with their father in many difficulties, to no (4.) 

and mother. (3.) purpose." 



XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or 
ed to the present tense ; as, 

" If be be learned." Will you parse if? Why in the subjunctive form ? 46?. 
550. be learned 1 550. Why in the sub- Will you parse the remaining exercises 
tmctive mood? 456. in these lessons ? 

'i.) Adverb. (2.) Irregula) verb. (3.) For William and m&her apply Rule XI. (4.) Adjective, 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



81 



Pres. tense. Imperf. tense. Perf. Participle. 

Go, Went, Gone. 

Begin, Began, Begun. 



L.IST OF IRREGULAR VERBS, 





Those marked r admit likewise 


a regular form. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Per/, or Pass. Part. 
abode. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Pari 


Abide, 


abode, 


Hang, 


hung, r. 


hung. r. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn. r. 


Awake. 

Bear, to bring 
forth,. 


awoke, r. 


awaked. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid 


> bare, 


bora. 


Hit, 
Hold, 


hit, 
held, 


hit. 
held. 


Bear, to carry, 


bore, 


borne. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept 


Begin, 


began. 


begun. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


bereft r. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Leave, 


left, 


left 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Lie, to lie down, lay, 


lain. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown. r. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Cast, 
Catch, 


cast, 


cast. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


caught, r. 
chid, 


caught, r. 


Read, 
Rend, 


read, 


read. 


Chide, 


chidden, chid. 


ren^ 


rent 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Rid, 


rid, 
rode, 


rid. 


Cleave, to stick 


> 

} regular. 




Ride, 


rode, ridden.t 


or adhere, 




Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Cleave, to split 


clove or cleft, 


cleft, cloven. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clad. r. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Saw, 


saw, 


sawn. r. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Crow, 


crew, r. 


crowed. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought 


Cut, 


cut. 


cut. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Dare, to venture, durst, 


dared. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent 


Dare, to chal 


* 




Set, 


set, 


set. 


lenge, 




Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Deal, 


dealt, r. 


dealt, r. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapes 


Dig, 


dug, r. 


dug. r. 


Shave, 


shaved, 
sheared, 


shaven, r. 


Do/ 


did, 


done. 


Shear, 


shorn. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Shine, 


shone, r. 


«hone. r. 


Drink, 


drank. 


druuk. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Fatf. 
Feed, 


eat or ate, 


eaten. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


fell, 


fallen. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


fed, 


fed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung, 
sunk. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Sleep, 


slept. 


slept. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung, 
slunk. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


Get, 

Gild, 


got, 


got.* 


Slit, 


slit, r. 


•lit ? or slitted. 


gilt, r. 


gilt. r. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


girt. r. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, r 


Give, 


gave, 
went, 


given. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Go, 


gone. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, r. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Spill, 


spilt, r. 


spilt, r. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown, 
had. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Have, 


had, 


1 Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten.J 



XL VI. When is a verb called irregu- 
lar? 551. 

Will you name the present and imper- 
fect tenses, also the perfect participie of 
go? begin? am? arise ? awake? bear? 



(to carry.) bid? bite? break? choose? 
do? drink? eat? forget? have? known? 
lie? (to lie down.) mow? rise? see? 
throw ? weave ? write ? 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete, 
t Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



its compound, forgotten, a still in good use. 

X Spittm is nearly obsolete. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present 
Split, 


Imperfect. 
split, 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 
spilt, r. 


Present. 
Take, 


Imperfect 
tock, 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Teach, 


taught, 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang 


sprung. 


Tear, 


tore, 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Tell, 


told, 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Think, 


thought, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Throw, 


threw, 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


Stride, 


strode, or strid, 


stridden. 


Tread, 


trod, 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck or stricken. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Wear, 


wore, 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Weave. 


wove, 


Strove or strew 


C sfrowed or 
* I strewed, 


C strown, strowed, 
\ strewed. 


Weep, 
Win, 


wept, 
won, 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Wind, 


wound, 


Sweat, 

Swell, 


swet, r. 
swelled, 


swet. r. 
swollen, r. 


Work, 


wrought, 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Write, 


wrote, 



Perf. or Pan. Part 
taken. 

taught 

torn. 

told. 

thought 

thriven. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden. 

waxen, r 

worn. 

woven. 

wept 

won. 

wound. 
C wrought or 
I worked. 

wrung. 

written. 

553. We say, " I have seen/' " I had seen," and " I am seen/' using the 
participle seen instead of the verb saw : hence, 

Note VI. We should use participles, only, after have, and 
had, and the verb to be. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
"John has written his copy" 

554. Has written is an irregular active-transitive verb, 
from the verb to write — " Pres. write ; Imperf. wrote ; Perf. part. 
written. 1. I have written ; 2. You have written ; 3. He or John 
has written" — found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with John, by 
Rule VII. 

John, copy, and his are parsed as before. 



exercises in 



" Job has struck John." 

" John has been struck by Job." 

" The men caught the thief in the 

tavern." 
" The thief was caught by the 

men in the tavern." 
" A wise son will make a glad 

father." 
" The act was done by William." 



SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
1. 

" James found his little brother in 

the boat." 
" The instructer makes good 

pens." 
" The farmer ploughs the ground 

in spring." 
" I may spend my time in the 

country." 



Will you correct, in accordance with 
Note VI., the following examples from 
the list above ? 

" John has wrote." 

" He done it well." 

" The sun has rose." 

" The sun risen yesterday in a cloud." 

" I see him yesterday." 

" He has did his task." 

" The birds have flew away." 

« The birds flown or flew." 

" The post is drove into the ground." 

" He began or begun to write." 

" The task is began." 

" I had went with him." 

" My brother has not spoke." 

u The cloth is wove." 

" The boys run swiftly." 

*The thief has stole my watch." 



" His copy was wrote well." 

" He was smote on his cheek." 

"John was awoke by the noise." 

" My father has came." 

" He come yesterday." 

" Mary has chose the better part." 

" He drunk to excess." 

" The book was gave to me." 

u His friends have forsook him.'* 

" He was not forsook by hia children. " 

"The laborer worked for me forty 

days." 
" He was took and bound." 
"John has written his copy." Will 

you parse has written 1 

Why is has written an irregular verb ? 

551. Why active ? 439. Why transitive ? 

440. 



EXERCISES. 



83 



4 « John is at home." 
" Rufu3 rode into the country." 
f The sun will shine." 
" The thief was confined in jail." 
•* The horse ran with great vio- 
lence." 



" He abode in peace." 

" They would be cruel." 

" We may have been negligent." 

" The boys should have been stu 

dious." 
" William was in town." 



" If he will assist me, I shall be 
much (1.) obliged to him." 

" If he be virtuous, then he will 
be happy." 

" If he is happy, then I am con- 
tented." 

" Had he mentioned that circum- 
stance, I should have avoided 
my present calamities." 

"Although he acknowledged his 

" Thou hast benefited me." 
" Ye make no pretensions." 
" This doctrine hath no follow- 
ers." 
" If thou love me." 
u If thou art more comfortable, I 

heartily rejoice." 

i 

" If Thomas, who is at school, 
return in season, I will visit 
you." 

" The boys whom I admonished 
have reformed." 

" The man whose life was in dan- 
ger returned in safety." 



faults, still he would not recom- 
pense me." 

I will write him, lest he neglect 
my business." 

Should I be disappointed, I shall 
despair." 

Unless he repent, he will not be 
pardoned." 

Were I* in your place, I would 
relieve him." 

Dost thou hear me ? 

Hath he many advisers ?" 

Ye do always err." 

Thou shalt surely die." 

If thou hadst obeyed me, thou 
wouldst not have been disap- 
pointed." 

The task which the instructor 
imposed was performed with 
reluctance." 

The measure which he adopts 
will succeed." 

I have known a little child that 
exhibited the prudence of ma- 
ture years." 



XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

555. When I say, " John begins to read," to read is a verb in the infinitive 
mood 5 and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins : hence we say that 
it is governed by begins. 

"He is beginning to read/' Here, the infinitive follows the participle 
oeginning ; it is, therefore, governed by beginning. 

" He is eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective eager ; 
we therefore say that it is governed by eager. 

" He has an opportunity to learn." Here, the infinitive, to learn is gov- 
erned by the noun opportunity, because it follows the noun. 

In like manner the infinitive may be governed by pronouns ; as, " There is 
a fine opportunity for him to learn f 1 hence, 



XLVII. "John begins to read." In 
what mood is to read? 555. Why? 479. 
By what is it governed ? 555. Why? 555. 

"He is beginning to read." What gov- 
erns to read in this case ? 555. 

" He is eager to learn." What governs 
to learn in this case ? 555. Why ? 555. 

(1.) Adverb. 



"He has an opportunity to learn?' 
What part of speech governs to learn in 
this exs mole? 556. Why? 555. 

t( opportunity for him to learn." 

What does the infinitive here follow? 
By what, then, is it governed ? 555. 

* See S-13. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RXJXcZS XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, partici 

pies, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, 
"James begins to learn." 

556. To learn is a regular transitive verb — " Pres. learn 
Imperf. learned ; Per/, part. learned 5 ' — made in the infinitive 
mood, fresent tense, and governed by begins, agreeably to 
Rule XII. 

James and begins, are parsed as before. 

EXERCTSES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
" George desires to learn." grammar teaches us to write 

" He is eager to learn." correctly." 

" He has a desire to study." " He should seek to obtain 
u It seems to please John." knowledge." 

11 William has come to see us." " We may be taught to write 
" They are determined to excel." read, and spell." 

" A knowledge of the rules of 

Omission of to, the usual. Sign of the Infinitive. 

" John saw the man strike (1.) " I heard the clock strike." 

the boy." " The tutor bade him do it.' 

u The instructor made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel." 

mit." "My uncle let the boys play in 
" They need not proceed in such the garden." 

haste." " See (2.) the blind beggar dance." 

Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed 
by conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " The summit of a mountain 
so high as to be invisible." 

EXAMPLES. 

" They are about (3.) to depart." " He desired no more (4.) than (5.) 
" He is wise enough (3.) to study." to know his duty." 



XLVIII. 

557. We have before seen, that participles partake of tne nature of two 
parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance 
which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noun in the sen- 
tence in which they are usea } as, " The sun is setting :" here, the participle 
setting is said to refer to the noim sun : hence, 

What, then, may be regarded as a rule " They are about to depart." By what 

for the government, of the infinitive ? XII. is the infinitive hers governed ? What is 

" John begins to learn." Will you tho»note for this? VII. 

pars e to learn ? James? begins 7 556. XLVIII. What is a participle ? 498. 

Is to ever omitted ? 480. "The sun is Betting." What is set 

"Will you now parse the exercises in ting! 557. To what, then, does setting 

the lessons which follow ? - refer? 557. Rule? XIII." 

What is the infinitive mood used for ? Will you now parse setting in full? 

479. 

(1.) Strike is goveintd by Rule XII. 

(2.) See is in the imperative, agreeing with th&uor you, understood, by Rule VII. 

(3.) Adverb. (4.) Noun (5.) Conjunction. 






1$ 



PARTICIPLES. 85 

RULE XIII. 

Participles refer to nouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" The wind is rising." 

558. Rising is a present active participle, from the ir- 
regular verb to rise — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf. fart, risen" 
— and it refers to wind, according to Rule XIII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
1. 

* The moon is setting." " Mary was playing.'* 

u The sun is rising." " I have been writing." 

" The trees are growing." " I found him crying." 

" John was dancing." " I left him rejoicing." 

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 
" TJie rising sun cheers us." 

559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to 
rise — "Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf. part, risen" — and belongs to 
sun, by Rule IV. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

2. 

" The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the 
declining years." twinkling stars." 

" The roaring winds alarm us." " The roaring cataract strikes us 

" The rippling stream pleases with awe." 

us." " The laboring man should not 

" The singing-master visited me." be defrauded." 

" Having dined, I returned to " Having slept, he recovered his 

school." strength." 

I Having fought bravely, they " Having retired to rest, he was 

were at last (1.) overcome." seized with violent pain." 

P John, having exercised too vio- " The thief, having escaped, was 

lentlv, fainted." never ailerwards seen in that 

region ' 
4. 

I William returned, mortified at " A child left to follow his own 

his loss." inclinations is most common- 

" The stream, swollen by the ly ruined." 

rains, overflowed its banks." " Admired and applauded, he be- 

" The man accustomed to his came vain." 

glass seldom reforms." 

Will you parse the next lesson? What kind of a participle is " Having 

Will you parse rising, in the sentence, dined"? 504. Why? 504. 

P The risingsun" ? 559. W T hy is it call- Who dined, in the phrase, "Having 

ed a participial adjective? Ans. Because dined, I returned to school" ? 

it describes, like an adjective, and im- To what, then, does having dined refer? 

plies action, like a participle. Rule XIII. Will ycu now parse tho re- 
Will you now parse the next lesson ? maining lessons ? 

(1.) At last is an adverbial phrase. 

8 H 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. 

" A dissipated son grieves his youth into his own house, 

parents." and rendered to him deserved 

" We must not neglect any known assistance.' 

duty." " William befriended the deserted 

u My father took the forsaken man." 

6. 

" The men, being fatigued by la- feet, was severely and justly 

bor, sought rest in sleep." punished." 

" William, being dismissed from " The tree, having been weighed 

college, retired to the coun- down for a long time by abun- 

try." dance of fruit, at last (1.) fell 

" Thomas , after having been re- to the ground." 
peatedly admonished to no ef- 

EULS XXV. 

Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, govern 
the objective case. 

" James is beating John" 

560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, objective case, and governed by 
beating, by Rule XIV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" John is striking William." immediately set off for Bos- 

" Susan is studying her lesson." ton." 

" Mary has been repeating her " I spied the cat watching a 

lesson to her mother." mouse." 

" The teamster, seeing the stage " Having given directions to his 

upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he left his family 

it." and took the stage for Wash- 

" Having obtained my request, 1 ington." 

" He delights infighting" 

561. Fighting is a participial noun, in the objective case, 
and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" Job was exhausted by wrest- " Job practises fencing daily." 

ling." - " The instructer teaches reading, 

" Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling, in his 

sewing." school." 

" Walter excels in writing." " Whispering is forbidden m 

" Fishing delights me." school." 

"Beating John." Will you parse ticipial noun ? Ans. Because it implies 
John 1 560. Beating ? 558. action, like a participle, and has, also, the 

Will you parse the remaining exercises sense of a noun. 
in the losson above i Will you parse the rest of the exercises 

" In righting." Will you parse fight- in this lesson ? 
%ng 1 561 Why is fighting called a par- 

(1.) M last is an adverbial phrase 



EXERCISES. 87 

2. 
562. " You will much oblige me by sending those books." 

Sending is a participial noun, In the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X, 

Books is a common noun, of the third person, plural num- 
ber, neuter, gender, objective case, and governed by the 
active participle sending, according to Rule XIV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" James derives pleasure from " Mary's reading has been useful 

reading useful books." in improving her taste in 

r John is above doing a mean composition." 

action." u I am discouraged from under- 

" Parents are pleased at seeing taking this study." 

the progress of their chil- " A good instructer takes no de • 

dren."* light in punishing." 

The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article 
the before it ; and the preposition of after it 5 as, " By the observing of truth, 
you will command respect." With equal propriety, however, it may be said, 
r By observing truth/ 7 «fcc, omitting both the article and the preposition. If 
we use the article without the preposition, or the preposition without the arti- 
cle, the expression will appear awkward : hence, 

Note VIII. The definite article the should be used be- 
fore, and the preposition of after, participial nouns, or they 
should both be omitted. 

EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

"By the observing these rules, " In the regarding his interests, he 

he will avoid mistakes." neglected the public affairs." 

r He prepared them for the event " He was sent to prepare the way 

by the sending to them proper by preaching of repentance. " 

information." " Keeping of one day in seven (1 ) 

" In writing of his letter, he made is required of Christians." 

some mistakes." 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" William calls George." " John will be punished for his 
" John's father will reward his insolence." 

industry." " We may improve under our in. 
li George's father's carriage pass- structer, if we choose." 

ed the tavern." " He who would excel in learn- 
' If William return, he will be ing, must be attentive to his 

disappointed." books." 

" John has beaten his little brother " She begins to improve." 

most shamefully." 

" By sending those books." Will you Instead of saying, " By the observing 

parse sending ? 562. books ? 562. these rules," what should I say? Why? 

Will you parse the remaining exercises Note VIII. 

in this lesson ? Will you now parse and correct the 

From what are present participles exercises under Note VIII. ? 

formed ? 497 Will you parse the promiscuous exer- 

How may participles in ing be distin- cises in Syntax ? Next take those to be 

guished from other parts of speech of the written, 
■ame termination ? 50C. 

1 ' * — ^— .— — m 
(1 ) Seveii is a numeral adjective, belonging to days, understood, by Note I. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

563 Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive 
verb ? One, containing a neuter verb ? One, containing a passive 
verb ? On^ expressing the same sense as the last in an active form? 
Will you compose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood ? 
One, in the subjunctive mood ? One, in the imperative mood ? One, 
in the infinitive mood ? One, having an adjective in the superlative 
degree ? One, having the article an correctly used before a vowel ? 
One, having an adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a 
superlative signification ? One, containing the relative whose f One, 
containing lohich? One, with ichat used as a compound pronoun? 
One, having who used as an interrogative pronoun ? One, having a 
verb in the subjunctive mood, common form ? 

Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense, 
with the word truth contained in them ? One, with the word wisdom 
contained in it ? One, with the word knoioledge ? One, with the 
word learning ? One, with the word science ? - 

Will you construct a sentence about prudence ? One about his- 
tory ? One or more on the following subjects, namely, geography, 
gardening, farms, orchards ? 

Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make 

sense, namely, " Industry health"? " By — we acquire "? 

" In youth characters "? " Arithmetic business"? 

" Washington live hearts of his " ? 



XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

564. The verbs have, be, will and do, when they are unconnected with a 
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal 
verbs 5 as, " We luxve enough 3" " I am grateful 3" " He wills it to be so 3" 
" They do as they piease." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries 3 as, 
" I shall have enough 3" " I will be grateful," &c. 

565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the 
following account of them. 

566. Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater en- 
ergy and positiveness 3 as / " I do speak truth 3" " I did respect him 3" " Here 
am 1, for thou didst call me." They are of great use in negative (1.) sen- 
lences 5 as, " I do not fear 3" " I did not write." They are almost universally 
employed in asking questions 3 as, " Does he learn ?" " Did he not write V 
They sometimes also supply (2.) the place of another verb, and make the rep- 
etition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary 5 as, " You 
attend not to your studies as he does;" (i. e. " as he attends," &c.) " I shall 
come, if I can 3 but if I do not, please to excuse me 3" (i. e. u if I come not.") 

567. May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing 
can and could, the power 3 as, " It may rain 3" "I may write or read f 
11 He might have improved more than he has j" " He can write much better 
than he could last year." 

XLIX. Which are the auxiliary verbs ? What effect have do and did in sen- 

512. tences ? 566. Give an example. 566. 

What is an auxiliary verb ? 511. Will you give an example in which the 

What a principal one ?* repetition of the principal verb is un- 

When are have, be, will, and do princi- necessary? 566. 

pal verbs ? 564. Give an example of What do may and might express ? 567 
each. 564. 

(1.) Denying. (2.) To fill uf . * Sec question to 197. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 89 

568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity ; as, 
li We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not prevari- 
cate." (1 J 

569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates (2.) resolution 
and promising 5 in the second and third person, k only foretells 5 as, "I will 
reward the good, and will punish the wicked f* u We will remember benefits, 
and be grateful ;" " Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly f " You, or they, 
will have a pleasant walk n 

570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the 
second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens ; as, " I shall 
go abroad ; ,; " We shall dine at home 3" " Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the 
land ;" " Ye shall do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall account for their 
misconduct" The following passage is not translated (3.) according to the 
distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and will : " Surely g-oodness 
and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house 
of the Lord for ever." It ought to be, " will follow me," and " I shall 
dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out, 
" I will be drowned ! nobody shall help me !" made a sad misapplication of 
these auxiliaries. 

571. These observations respecting the import (4.) of the verbs will and 
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence is 
interrogative, just the reverse, (5.) for the most part, takes place : thus, " I 
shall go," "You will go," express event (6.) only; but, u Will you go?" 
imports intention ; and " Shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. But 
14 He shall go." and " Shall he go ? ; both imply will ; expressing or referring 
to a command. 

572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning; of these 
auxiliaries likewise undergoes (7.) some alteration; as the learners will readily 
perceive by a few examples : u He shall proceed ;" " If he shall proceed ; ; 
■ You sJiall consent ;" " If you sliall consent." These auxiliaries are some- 
times interchanged (8.) in the indicative and subjunctive moods ; to convey the 
same meaning of the auxiliary; as, " He tvill not return ;" " U he shall not 
return ;" " lie shall not return ;" " If he will not return." 

573. Would primarily (9.) denotes inclination of will 3 and should, obliga- 
tion ; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple 
event. 

574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the 
following * 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. I do. I have. 

Imp. I did. I had. 

Perf. I have done. 1 have had. 

Plup. I had done. I had had. 

1 Fut. I shall or will do. I shall or will have 

2 Fut. I shall have done. I shall have had 

What is the use of must 1 568. all the days of my life ; and I will dwell 

What does will intimate in the first in the house of the Lord for ever. ,, 570, 

person singular? plural? 569. Give an In what consists the mistake in the 

example. 569. In the second and third expression which the foreigner made 

persons ? 569. Give an example. 569. when he fell into the Thame* ? 570. 

What does shall intimate in the first What do shall and will denote in inter- 
person? 570. Give an example. 570. rogative sentences ; as, "Shall I go?" 

In what particular is the translation of " Will you go ?" 571. 

the following passage incorrect ? " Sure- What do would and should primarily 

ly goodness and mercy shall follow me denote ? 573. 

(1.) To shun the truth- (2.) Shows. (3.) Expressed. (4.) Meaning. (5.) Contrary. 

(6,) What happens. (7.) Suffers. (8.) To exchange one for the other. (9.) In the first place. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

575. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have. 

Imp. I might, could, would, or should I might, could, would or should have. 

do. 

Perf: I may or can have done. I may or can have had. 

Plup. I might, could, would or should I might, could, would or should have 

have done. had. 

576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pres. 1. If I do. If I have, &c. 

576—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have. 

577. INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. To do. To have. 
Per/. To have done To have had. 

578. PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. Doing. Having. 
Per/. Done. Had. 
Comp. per/. Having done. Having had. 



L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
some of the moods and tenses. 

580. The following are the principal ones ; 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf- Participle. 

May, Might, (Wanting.) 

Can, Could, 

Will, Would, 

Shall, Should, 

Must, Must, 

Ought, Ought, 

Quoth, - — i — 

581. Of these, ought and must, you perceive, are not varied. 

582. Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is the 
same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always followed by an in- 
finitive 5 as, " He ought to study ; ;; " He ought to have read." In this last 
example, ought is in the imperfect ; and in the first, it is in the present. This 
we determine by the infinitive, which follows the verb, thus : when the present 
infinitive follows ought, ought is in the present tense 5 but when the perfect in 
finitive follows it. it is in the imperfect tense. 

583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and intransitive, 
or neuter signification. Thus, to flatten, when it signifies to make even or level, 
is an active-transitive verb 5 but when it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is 
an intransitive verb. 

Will you repeat the synopsis of do Which are not varied ? 581. 

through all the moods ? of have? How are ought and quoth always used ? 

Will you conjugate do in the present 582. 

tense ? have in the perfect tense ? How can you tell when ought is in the 

What is the perfect participle of do 1 present tense? 582. 

rthave 1 the compound perfect of do ? of When is it in the imperfect tense ? 582 

Xave? Give an example of each tense. 582. 

L. What are defective verbs? 579. When is to flatten transitive, and when 

Will you mention the principal ones, intransitive ? 583. 

with their imperfect tenses ? 580. How, then, are verbs often used ? 583. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 91 

684. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposition, may 
become a compound active-transitive verb 5 as, to smile is intransitive 5 it can- 
not, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into the pas- 
sive form. We cannot say, " She smiled him," or " He was smiled 5" but 
we say, very properly, " She smiled on him 5" " He was smiled on by her. ,; 

585. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To cast 
means to throw ; as, " He cast a stone at her." To cast up, however, means 
to compute ; as, " He casts up his accounts." In all instances in which the 
preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should be considered 
a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsing. 

586. There are some verbs, which, although they admit an objective case 
after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action 3 as, "I resemble 
my father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily reconciled by reflect- 
ing that, in all such cases, the verb has a direct reference to its object. Of 
this nature are the verbs retain, resemble, own, have, &c. 

587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and are 
thence called neuter passive verbs 5 as, "John goes home to-night." Here 
goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, " John is gone home," is 
gone is a neuter passive verb. Again, in the phrase, " William comes," comes 
is an intransitive verb ; and in the phrase, " William is come," is come is a 
neuter passive verb. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. 

" William had had many advan- " He has had many precious op- 
tages before he improved portunities." 

them in a proper manner." " John will do as his instructor 

" A good scholar will not do directs." 

what (1.) is forbidden by his " He may have had time." 
instructer." 

2. 

" I own this book." " I cannot believe him." 

" Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to 

" He retains his place." trust him." 

3. 

" The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly." 
ground." u She smiled on John." 

" The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune 
counts often." in every undertaking." 

4. 

" The instructer has come." u Mary was gone before her moth- 

" Our instructer has come." er came." 

" William has gone to visit his " When they came to town, they 

parents." made many purchases." 

" Susan has gone." 

How can an intransitive verb become Is resemble, strictly speaking, a transi- 

transitive? 584. Give an example. 584. tiveverb? 586. 

What does to cast mean ? 585. Why does it admit an object after it? 

Meaning of to cast up 1 585. 586. 

When may the preposition be reckoned There are several verbs of this class j 

a part of the verb ? 585. will you name some of them ? 586. 

How should it be considered in pars- What is a neuter passive verb? 587 

. ing? 585. Give an example. 587. 

Will you now parse the next lessons . 

(1.) What stands for « thai rvhich," or « the thing which." Apply Rules V. VI. and VIII. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LI. OF ADVERBS. 

588. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify them. 

589. Expressions like the following, namely, a few days ago, long since, 
none at all, at length, in vain, by no means, a great deal, &lc, are denominated 
adverbial phrases, when they are used to qualify verbs or participles, by ex- 
pressing the manner, time or degree of action. 

590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of the 
comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more force 3 as, 
" The mere he walks, the better he feels." When the article is used in this 
sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an adverbial phrase, and 
be so considered in parsing. 

591. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in ly are adverbs. 
The reason of this is that ly is a contraction of the adverb like : thus, from 
manlike we form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentlemanlike. — 
Hence, 

592. If you meet with a word ending in ly, implying in its signification the 
idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb. 

KUZaS XX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other 

adverbs. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" In vain vie hole for perfect happiness." 

593. In vain is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, ac- 
cording to Rule IX. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" John has come again, but Wil- " William acted very nobly." 

liam has not." " 1 will by no means consent." 

iC Very many persons fail of hap- " He wrote a long letter a few 

piness." days ago."(l.) 

" A vast many evils are incident " John was writing carelessly." 

to man in his wearisome jour- " I have admonished her once and 

ney through life." again." 

" The instructress has at length " A few days ago, there was much 

arrived." excitement in town." 

LI. What is the meaning of adverb ? When are they to be considered ad- 

228. verbial phrases ? 589. 

To what is the adverb joined? 588. Is the article the ever joined to an ad 

For what purpose r 588. verb ? 590. For what purpose ? 590. 

How many different parts of speech What do the article and adverb form 

does it qualify ? 588. in such cases ? 590. 

Which are they ? 588. How is it to be considered in parsing i 

What is the definition of an adverb ? 590. 

588. How came most words ending in ly to 

Are adverbs compared?* be considered adverbs? 591. Give an 

Will you compare wisely ? 235 soon? example. 591. 

234. How can we determine between words 

How are they compared? 236. ending in ly, whether or not they are ad- 
Will you compare the adverbs much? verbs ? 592. 
well? bad? ill? 237. What rule do you apply when you 

Some adverbs are not regular in their parse an adverb ? IX. 

comparison ; will you name one ? 237. " In vain we look." Will you pars© 

Will you name four or rive adverbial in vain? 593. 
phrases t 589. 

(1.) A few days «jjo--an adverbial phrase * See question to 234. 



PREPOSITIONS. 93 

Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, we should use adverbs ; but to qualify nouns, 
we should use adjectives. 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" William writes good."* " On conditions suitably to his 

" Susan studies diligent." rank." 

" He speaks fluently and reasons " He speaks correct." 

correct." " Mary sings admirable." 

" John writes tolerable well, but " He writes elegant." 

readsf miserable." " He reads and spells very bad." 

" Harriet dresses neat." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

594. Will you write down a sentence, containing a compound 
active-transitive verb ? One, having a neuter-passive verb ? 

Will you compose two or more sentences about a lion ? Two or 
more, about sheep 9 Two or more, about a cow f One, about an ox ? 
One, about a dog f One, about a cat ? One, about Africans ? One, 
about Indians ? One, about fishes ? One, about steam-boat disaster sf 
One, about stage accidents ? 



LII. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and to show 
the relation between them. 

596. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a preposition 
and verb ; as, " to wphold," " to invest," " to overlook 5" and this composition 
sometimes gives a new sense to the verb 5 as, " to under stand," " to with' 
draw." But the preposition more frequently occurs after the verb, and sepa- 
rate from it ; as, " to cast up/ 7 " v o fall on." The sense of the verb, in this 
case, is also materially affected by the preposition. 

598. The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, some- 
times appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered 5 as, a They had their 
reward soen after ;" " He died not long before ;" u He dwells above ;" but 
if the noun time or place be added, they lose their adverbial form 5 as, u He 
died not long before" [that time], &c. 

599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use of the dif- 
ferent prepositions. For illustration, we will take the following sentences : " He 
walks with a staff by moonlight 3" " He was taken by stratagem, and killed 
with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, " He walks by 

Will you next parse the remaining ex- compounded ? 596. Give an example, 

ercises ? 596. 

When should we use adverbs ? Note Where is the preposition more fre- 

IX. • quently placed ? 596. Give an example. 

When adjectives ? Note IX. 596. 

'-'• Wiiiiam writes good." Wherein is ^ Will you name four prepositions which 

this sentence incorrect ?* in many instances appear to be adverbs ? 

Will you now parse and correct the re- 598. 
maining exercises ? How may they be converted into prep- 

LII. What is the meaning of preposi- ositions again ?*593. 
Hon ? 2t4. " He walks by a staff with moonlight. " 

What are prepositions ? 595. Will you correct this sentence, and then 

Will you repeat the list ? 247. repeat the phrase ? 

With what are verbs not unfrequently 

* For rhe adjective good, we should use the adverb well, according to Note IX. 

* Reads agrees with John understood and is, therefore, connected with writes by the conjunction but, agre* 
ably to Rule XL 



94 ENGLISH GRABIMAR. 

a staff with moonlight 5" '*' He was taken with stratagem, and killed by a 
sword 3" and it will appear that they differ in signification more than one, 
at first view, would be apt to imagine. 

StXJXaE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" John lives within his income." 

600. Within is a preposition. 

Income is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by 
within, according to Rule X. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

' Thomas made his fortune by He made the sun to shine by 

industry." day, and the moon (1.) to give 

1 Susan labors with her needle light by night." 

for a livelihood." " Beneath the oak lie acorns in 

' Respecting that affair, there was great abundance." 

a controversy." " John, who is at all times watch- 

" In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, will 

and all things that are in it. attend to that concern." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

601 . Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepo- 
sitions to make sense ? " John was — the house when he was seized 
a fit." " The busy bee — summer provides food — the approach- 
ing winter — the prudence — a rational being." 

Will you supply the objects to the following ? " James was catch- 
ing ." M He was beating ." " He supports ." 

Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following ? 
was running." « was dancing." 



Will you supply verbs in the following ? "A dutiful child 

his parents." " Grammar us correctly." 

Will you compose two or more sentences about boys ? One, about 
whales ? One, about snakes? One, about foxes ? One, about 'parents? 
One, about brothers? One, about sisters? One, about uncles? One, 
about aunts ? 



LIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

602. A conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to con- 
nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make 
but one. 

Will you repeat the rule respecting the What is a simple sentence ? 253. Give 

government of nouns by prepositions ? X. an example. A compound sentence 

"John lives within his income." Will 256. Give an example, 
you parse within 7 600. income 7 600. Why called compound ? 254. 

Will you now take the remaining ex- LIII. Meaning of conjunction 7 257. 
ercises to be parsed ; after which, those What is a conjunction ? 602. 
to be written ? Meaning of copulative 7 264. 



(1.) The sense is, u He made the moon." Moon, then, is in he objective case, governed by maae under- 
•tood, and connected with iun t by Rule XI. 



INTERJECTIONS. 95 

603. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen 
tences ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord." 

601. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to unite 
only words 5 as in the following sentences : " Duty and interest forbid vicious 
indulgences." " Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of ex 
pression contains two sentences, namely, the first, " Duty forbids vicious in- 
dulgences 3" " Interest forbids vicious indulgences :" the second, " Wisdom 
governs us 3" " Folly governs us." 

RXJLS XI. 

Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense, 
and nouns or pronouns of the sume case, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

605. " William writes and ciphers. 11 
And is a copulative conjunction. 

Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from the 
verb to cipher— " Pres. cipher; Imp erf ciphered; Per, part, 
ciphered. 3. I cipher; 2. You cipher; 3. He or William 
ciphers" — made in the indicative mood, present tense, 
third person singular, and agrees with William understood, 
and is connected to ivrites by the conjunction and, agreeably to 
Rule XI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" John ciphers rapidly, and reads " Though he is lively, yet he is 
correctly." not too volatile." 

'* If we contend about trifles, and " If he has promised, he should 
violently maintain our opin- act accordingly." 

ions, we shall gain but few " He denied that he circulated 
friends." the report." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

606. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction if? 
One, containing and? As many sentences as there are conjunctions 
which follow ; each sentence containing one ? Although. Uidess. 
For. Because. Therefore Or. Neither. Nor. 

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson? One, about Clay? 
One, about Monroe? One, about Madison? 



UN. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

607. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings 
of the speaker. 

What is the use of the copulative con- Do conjunctions ever connect sen- 
junction ? 265. tences when they appear to connect words 

Will you repeat the list of copulative only ? 604. Give an example. 604. 

conjunctions ? 266. " William writes and ciphers." Will 

What does disjunctive signify ? 271. you parse and 1 605. ciphers ? 605. 

What does the disjunctive conjunction Will you, in the next place, take the 

connect ? 274. exercises to be parsed and written, and 

VVill you repeat the list of them ? 275. dispose of them ? 

What is the rule for connecting words LIV. What is the meaning of inter- 
by conjunctions ? XI. jection ? 283. 

What other words, besides conjunc- What are interjections ' 607 
tions and prepositions, connect ? 603. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

608. We do not say, " Ah. I !" " Oh, I I" but "Ah, me !" "Oh, me V* 
using- the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here spoken of, 
you perceive, is of the first person : hence, 

Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the 
objective case, after the interjections Oh ! O ! ah ! &c. 

609. We say, u O thou persecutor !" " Oh ye hypocrites !" " O thou who 
dwellest," &c. : hence, 

Note XI. The interjections O ! oh ! and ah I require 
the nominative case of pronouns in the second person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

610. " Ah me I I must perish" 
Ah is an interjection. 

Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular, 
objective case, and governed by ah, agreeably to Note X. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

" O, thou (1.) who hast murdered deaf (3.) to the calls of duty 

thy friend !" and honor." 

" O, thou who nearest prayer !" " Oh ! happy (4.) us, surrounded 

" Ah me ! must I endure all this ?" with so many blessings." 
" Ah ! unhappy (2.) thou, who art 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

611. Will you compose a sentence containing alas? One, con- 
taining oh? One, about volcanoes? One, about lakes? One, about 
islands? One, about Webster the statesman? One, about a good 
scholar? One, about a poor scholar? One, about a good instructer? 



LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 

612. Apposition^ in grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns in the 
same case. 

613. When I say, " John the mechanic has come/' I am speaking of only 
one person ; the two nouns, John and mechanic, both meaning or referring to 
the same person 3 consequently they are put ; by apposition, in the same case : 
hence, 

HXJLE XV. 

When two or more nouns, in the same sentence, signify 
the same thing, they are put, by apposition, in the 
same case. 

Will you repeat from the list six inter- Will you now take the remaining ex- 

jections ? 285. ercises to be parsed and written ? 

How may an interjection generally be LV. Meaning of apposition? 612 

known ? 286. "John the mechanic." How many 

" Ah mo !" In what case is me ? 610. persons are here spoken of? 613. Should, 

What rule or note applies to me 1 X. then, the two nouns, John and mechanic, 

il O thou," &c. What note applies be in the same, or a different case ? 613. 

to thou 1 XI. What is the rule for this agreement 3 

" Ah me !" Will you parse ah ? me 7 XV. 

610. 

(1.) For thou, apply Note XI. (2.) Agrees with thou, by Rule IV. 

(3.) Belongs to who, by Rule IV. (4.) Apply Rule fV 



EXERCISES. 07 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

614. "Webster the statesman has left ws." 
Statesman is a common noun, masculine gender, third 

I'ERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, NOMINATIVE CASE, aild put ill appO- 

sition with Webster, by Rule XV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" John the Baptist was beheaded." " Cicero, the ^pator, flourished in 
" David, the thief, was appre- the time of Catiline, the con- 

hended." spirator." 

u Johnson, the bookseller, has " I visit Thompson, the profes- 

failed in business." sor, often." 

" I consulted Williams, the law- " John, the miller, died yester- 

yer." day." 

" If John will not go, I will go " We will inspect the goods our- 

myself." (1.) selves." 

* You yourself are in fault." '•' I, I am the man who committed 

" They themselves were mis- the deed." 

taken." 

Remark 1 . — For ihe same reason that one noun agrees with another in case, 

it agrees with it in number and person also. 

" I, Alexander, by the grace of " We, the representatives of the 
God, emperor of all the Rus- people of these colonies, do 

sians, promulgate this law." make this declaration." 

Remark 2. — When one noun describes or qualifies another, the one so 
qualifying- becomes an adjective in sense, and may be so considered in pars- 
ing. Accordingly, Tremont, in the phrase " Tremont House," is an adjec- 
tive belonging to House, by Rule IV. 

615. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

I The Marlborough Hotel is situ- " John Dobson was in town yes- 

ated in Washington-street." terday." 

" The firm of Messrs. Williams " John Johnson, the blacksmith, 

& Sons, has failed." has broken his leg." 

Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the same person or thing are 
separated by verbs, as, " Webster is a statesman," it is customary to apply 
one or more of the following rules : 

1. Any verb may have the same case after it as before it, when both words 
refer to the same thing. 

2. Tlie verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as 
tliat which next precedes it. 

"Webster the statesman." Will you "Tremont House." What part of 

parse statesman 7 614. speech is Tremont? Remark 2. How 

Will you now parse the succeeding ex- used here ? Remark 2. Will you parse 

ercises ? it in full ? 

" I will go myself." Will you parse Will you now parse all the exercises 

myself 7 under Remark 2 ? 

How is the compound personal pronoun What is the rule or rules usually giv- 

formed in the singular? 386. How in the en for parsing statesman, in the phrase, 

plural ? 386. " Webster is a statesman" ? Remark 3 ; 

When one noun is put in apposition 1, 2, 3, 4. 

with another, in what particulars does it In the same sentence, do Webster and 

1 agree with it? Remark J. statesman both mean or refer to the same 

Will you now parse the next exer- person ? In what case, then, ought they 

cises ? to be ? 613. By what rule ? XV. 

(10 Myself is a compound personal pronoun, first person, singular, nominative case, and pat in apposition 
With /, by Rule XV. 

9 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, 8fC. have the same case after them as 
before them. 

4. Neuter verls have the same case after them as before them. 

616. The foregoing rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unneces- 
sary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him to 
make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle. In corrobora- 
tion of this fact, Mr. Murray has the following remark : — 

617. " By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no government 
of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases 5 so that the two 
cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after 
it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible by ob- 
serving that the words, in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, 
may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, ' I un- 
derstood it to be him/ the words it and him are in apposition j that is, they re- 
fer 10 the same thing, and are in the same case." 

618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. 

" Webster is a statesman." " Julius Caesar was that Roman 

" John is a good scholar." general who conquered the 

'* William will become a distin- Gauls." 

guishedand valuable citizen." 
11 She walks a queen." (1.) 
" He is styled Lord (1.) Mayor (1.) 

of London." 
" He was named John." (1.) 
" She moves a queen." (1.) 

n Susan took her to be Mary." (1.) 
" 1 took him to be John (2.) Og- 

* l We at first took it to be her. but 

afterwards were convinced 

that (3.) it was not she." 
" He is not the person who (4.) 

it seemed he was." 
"I understood it to be him (1.) 

Remark 3.— It not unfrequently happens that the connecting verb is omit- 
ted ; as, " They made him captain ;" that is, to be captain. 

3. 

" They named him John." " They proclaimed him king." 

" The soldiers made him gen- " His countrymen crowned him 
eral."- emperor." 

619. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" It might have been him, (6.) but " She is the person who I under- 



" Tom struts a soldier." (1.) 
" Will sneaks a scrivener." 
" Claudius Nero, Caligula's un- 
cle, a senseless fellow, obtain- 



ed the kingdom." 



2. 



who is the son of Mr. (2.) John 

Quincy (2.) Adams." (1.) 
" She is not now the person whom 

they represented her (1.) to 

have been." 
" Whom (5.) do you fancy them 

to be?" 
" The professor was appointed 

tutor to the prince." 



there is no proof (7.) of it' 
"Though I was blamed, it could 

not have been me." 
" I saw one who I took to be she." 



stood it to have been. 
" Who do you think me to be V 
" Whom do men say that I ami" 
" Whom think ye that I am 1" 



What office does the verb to be per- 
form between cases ? 617. 

Are the cases next before and after it, 
alike, or different? 617. 

What is the opinion of Mr. Murray 
respecting the cases before and after to 
be? 617. 

How does he think it and him should 



be parsed in the phrase, "I understood 
it to be him"? 617. 

Will you now parse lessons 1, 2 and 3? 

Is the verb to be always expressed? 
Remark 3. Give an example. Remarks. 

Will you now take the sentences to 
be parsed and corrected ; also those to 
be written ? 



(-1.) Apply Rule XV. (2.) Remark 2. (3.) Conjunction, 
by Rule XV. (5.) Whom agrees with them, by Rule XV. 

according to Rule XV. (7.) Apply Rule VI. 



(4.) Who is put in apposition with he, 
(G.) Him should be he, to agree with it, 



NOUNS. 09 

620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition ? One, 
having nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb ? One, having 
a noun used as an adjective ? 

Will you construct a sentence having in it the word tcho ? One, 
having whose f One, having whom f One, having what ? One, 
having that? One, having ware? One, having woman? One, having 
hoy f One, having girls ? One, having parents ? 



LVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

621. To address signifies lo speak to ; as, " James, your father has come." 
The name of the person addressed must always be of the second person ; and 
a noun in this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it, and is wholly dis- 
connected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be independent. Hence, 

RtJLE XVI. 

When an address is made, the name of the person or 
thing addressed is in the nominative case independent 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

622. " John, will you assist me ?" 

John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular 

NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPEND- 
ENT, according to Rule XVT. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" My lords, (1 .) the time has come " Rufus, y®u must improve your 

when we must take some de- time." 

cisive measures." " Gentlemen of the jury." 

" in making this appeal to you, "James. (1.) study (2.) your 

my fellow-citizens, I rely en- book." 

tirely on your candor." " William, do try to get your les- 

son to-day." 
2. 
" Boys, attend to your lessons." " My dear children, let no root of 
p Girls, come into school." bitterness spring up among 

1 Did you speak to me, girls ?" you-" 

LVI. "James, your father has came." When is a noun independent ? 621. 

Which word here is the name of the per- What is the rule for a noun put inde- 

*on addressed? pendently ? XVI. 

What is the meaning of to address 1 In the sentence, "John, will you as- 

621. sist me ?" will you parse John ? 6122. 

Of what person is a noun when an ad- Will you next parse the rest of the ex- 
dress is made ? 621. ercises in this rule ? 

(1.) Rule XVI. (2.) Imperative mood, aad agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule VII. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

623. In the phrase, " The sun being risen, we set sail," the first clause of 
the sentence ; namely, u The sun being- risen," has nothing- to do with the re- 
mainder : the noun and participle ma}*, therefore, when taken tog-ether, be said 
to be in the nominative case independent 3 but as we kave already one case of 
this nature, we will, for the sake of making a distinction, call this (the noun 
joined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. Hence, 

A noun or pronoun before a participle, and independent 
of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case 
absolute. 

624. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

{ * The sun(l.) being risen, (2.) we " Wellington having returned to 

departed." England, tranquillity was re- 

" Egypt being conquered, Alex- stored to France." 

ander returned to Syria." " Bonaparte being conquered, the 

u Shame being lost, all virtue was king was restored." 

lost," " The conditions being observed, 

" The soldiers retreating, victory the bargain was a mutual 

was lost." benefit." 

623. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" Him (3.) only excepted, who " Him being destroyed, the re- 

wa3 a murderer." maining robbers made their 

*' Her being dismissed, the rest of escape." 

the scholars behaved well." 



LVIII. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Note .XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes 
placed independently ; as, " To be frank, I own I have in- 
jured you." 

626. " EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" To confess the truth, I was in " To tell the plain truth, I per- 

fault." suaded him to stay." 

" To display his power, he op- " To convince you, I will con- 
pressed his soldiers." tinue here till you return." 

LVII. " The sun being risen, we set LVIII. " To confess the truth, 

Bail." How many words in this sen- was," <Scc. How is to confess used ?— 

fence, used independently, are taken to- Note XII. 
gether ? 623. What is the rule for it ? Note XII. 

Why is this case denominated the case What is the infinitive mood used for t 

absolute ? 623. 479. 

What is the rule for the case absolute? How many tenses has it ? 528. 
XVII. What is its usual sign ? 517. 

Will you now take the parsing exer- Will you now parse the exercises un 

cises under Rule XVII., and then the der Note XII. ? 
sentences to be corrected? 

(1.) In the nominative case absolute with bring risen, by Rule XVII. (2.) Rule XIII. 

. (3.) When a noun is in the case absolute, it should be in the nominative case. Him should therefore b« h*> 
*y Rule XVIL 



MOOD. 101 

u To play is pleasant." What is pleasant ? " To play." The infinitive 
to play is ; then, the nominative case to is. " Thou slialt not kill, is required of 
all men." What is required ? " Thou shalt not kill." The verb is required, 
then, agrees with " Thou shalt not kill," as its nominative. Hence, 

626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood, or part of a 
sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb 
of the third person singular. 

627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

' To excel requires much exer- " Thou shalt not kill, is the com 
tion." mand of God." 

" To abandon friends will sink a " Honor thy father and thy moth- 
man's character." er, is required of ail men." 

" To practise religion is our du- " To write a fair hand requires 
ty." practice." 

Remark 1. — To excel is the nominative case to requires by Note XIII. j 
and requires agTees with to excel by Rule VII. In parsing " Thou shalt not 
kill," we first apply Rules VI., VII. and IX. The whole phrase is considered 
the nominative to is required, by Note XIII. 

2. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the object of a 
transitive verb ; as, u Boys love to play." What do boys love ? u To play." 
The object of lore, then, is to play. " Children do not consider how much has 
been done for them by their parents." Consider what ? " How much has been 
done for them by their parents ;" including for the object of the verb the whole 
phrase in italics. 

Note XIV. — -The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, 
may have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when 
there is no noun, either expressed or understood, to which 
the adjective may belong. 

628. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" To see the sun is pleasant." " Defraud not thy neighbor, is 

" To practise virtue will be pro- binding on all." 

ductive of happiness." " To do good to our enemies, ia 

1 To be ridiculed is unpleasant." not natural to our hearts." 

Remarks. — Pleasant agrees with " to see the sun," by Note XIV. Bind- 
ing agrees with " Defraud not thy neighbor." by *he same authority. To is 
apply Rule VII. ; to sun. Rule VIII. ; to the infinitive to see, Note XIII. 

629. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive gov 
erned by a participle ? One, using an infinitive after a noun ? One, 
describing the manner of playing ball ? One, or more, on the man 
ner of playing tag ? One, on the duty of children to mind their pa- 
rents ? One, or more, on industry f One, on the business you intend 
to pursue for life ? 

" To play is pleasant." What is pleas- Since we have a rule for to love, as a 

ant? What, then, is the nominative to verb, there is no necessity for considering 

is? 626-1. Rule ? Note XIII. it the object in parsing : what rule, then, 

" Thou shalt not kill, is required of all will you apply to it ? XII. 

men." What is required? Will you name an example in which 

What is the nominative to is required? there is part of a sentence used as tho 

626-1 Rule ? Note XIII. object of a verb ? 627. Remark 2. 

Will you now parse the remaining ex- " To see the sun is pleasant." Will 

cicises under this rule ? you parse pleasant ? to see ? the ? sun? is ? 

" Boys love to play." What is the ob- Will you now parse the remaining ex- 

ject of love ? 627. Remark 2. ercises under Noto XIV 

9 * 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LIX. 



630. In the phrase, " John and James are here," the sense is that " John 
and James are both here ;' ; two persons are therefore spoken of, which ren- 
ders it necessary to use the plural verb are, to agree with two nouns which in 
dividually are singular : hence, 

B-iriiS xvixi. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns, of the singular num- 
ber, connected together by and, either expressed or 
understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
agreeing with them in the plural number, 

631. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" William and James run/' " John and Joseph can get their 

u Mary and Harriet study, and lessons." 

they will therefore excel." " Time and tide wait for no man." 

" You and I are in fault." " My coat and pantaloons were 

" John and Thomas say they in- made by Watson." 

tend to study Latin." 

Remarks. -^William is one of the nominatives to the verb run. James is in 
the nominative case to the verb rrni, and is connected with the noun William, 
by Rule XL Run agrees with William and James by Rule XVIII. 

632. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Mary and her cousin has come." "The farmer and his son is in 
" You and I makes progress in town." 

our studies." " Susan and her sister is deceit- 
" Life and health is both uncer- ful." 

tain." " William and John both writes a 



good hand. 
-For has come, we should read have come, 



Remarks. — For has come, we should read have come, that the verb may be 
plural, when it has two nominatives connected by and. according- to Rule 
XVIII. 

Exception 1^— When and connects two or more nouns in the singular, which 
refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular 3 as, " Pliny the 
philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched science." 

633. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

u That superficial scholar and " In that house live a great and 

critic have given new evi- distinguished scholar and 

dence of his misguided judg- statesman." 

ment." " Mr. Cooper, the sailor and nov- 
;t There go a benevolent man and elist, visit La Fayette, the 

scholar." patriot and philanthropist." 



LIX. When I say, "John and James 
are here," of how many persons do I 
speak ? 

Should we, then, use is or are ? 630. 

What is the rule for are 1 XVIII. 

Will you now parse the exercises un- 
der It u lo XVIII.? 

" William and James run." Will you 
parse Willi-am in full ? and ? James 1 
run ? 

Will you parse the next exercises ? 

"Mary and her cousin has come." — 
Why is tins incorrect ? 632 



Will you parse the succeeding exer- 
cises ? 

" Pliny the philosopher and naturalist 
has greatly enriched science." Why 
should we use has, in this sentence, in- 
stead of have 1 Exception 1. 

" That superficial scholar and critic 
have given. " Why is have given incor- 
rect ? Exception 1. 

What is the rule for has cornel Excep- 
tion 1. 

Will you correct and par^e the remain- 
in i» exercises ? 



EXERCISES. 103 

Exception 2. — When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, 
have each or every joined with them, the verb must be in the singular number • 
as, li Every person, every house, and every blade of grass, was destroyed." 

634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Every man, and every woman, " Each man, and each woman, 

and every child, were taken." were particularly alluded to 

* Every tree, stick and twig, were in the report of the affair." 
consumed." 

Remark. — Were, in the first of these examples, should be changed for was 
because reference is had to each person, individually considered, which, in re- 
spect to the verb, is the same in effect as if one person only was spoken of. 

Note XV. — Every is sometimes associated with a plural 
noun, in which case the verb must be singular ; as, " Every 
hundred years constitutes a century." 

635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Every twenty-four hours afford " Every four years add another 
to us the vicissitudes of day day to the ordinary number 

and night." of days in a year." 

Remark. — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note : it should 
be affords, in the singular number. The reason of this is, that " every twenty- 
four hours," signifies a single -period of time, and is, therefore, in reality sin- 
gular. 

Note. XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col- 
lective noun in the singular, when apart only of the indi- 
viduals are meant ; as, " The council w r ere divided in their 
sentiments.' ' When the noun expresses the idea of unity, 
the verb should be singular; as, (i The council was com- 
posed wholly of farmers." 

Remarks.' — In the foregoing example, we use the plural verb were divided, 
because we refer to the individuals composing the council 5 but if no allusion 
of this sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as one entire body, we 
should have used the singular verb, according to the common rule 5 as, " The 
council is composed wholly of farmers." 

We apply to council, in the first example, Note XVI. 5 to were divided, the 
same note ; and to council, and was composed, in the second example, Rules 
VI. and VII. 

636. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" The council were divided in " My people do not consider." 
their sentiments." " The multitude eagerly pursue 

" A part of the men were mux- pleasure as their chief good." 

dered." 

In the first example, under Exception • " The council were divided." Why 

9, why use was destroyed, rather than not was 1 Note XVI. Remarks. ."Rule? 

were destroyed ? Ex< epxlon -?. Note XVI. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises When is a noun called collective ? 306 

under this exception, after having cor- In what circumstances would it be 

reeled them ? proper to use the singular verb ? Note 

"Every twenty four hours afford to XVI. Give an example. 

us." What does « every twenty-four How do you parse council? Note XVI 

hours" signify, one period of time, or Remarks. Were divided? Note XVI. 

more ? What is wrong, then ? Why ? Remarks. Was composed., in the sacond 

635. Remark. example ? Note XVI. 

What is the rule for this? Note XV. Will you now parse and correc tho 

Will you correct and parse the other remaining exercises under this note ? 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



G37. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" My people doth not consider." " The committee was divided in 
" The people rejoices in that their sentiments, and has re- 

which should give it sorrow." ferred the business to a gen- 

" The multitude rushes to certain eral meeting." 

destruction." 



LX. 



63S. Negative means denying ; and affirmative, asserting or declaring 'posi- 
tively. A sentence in which something- is denied is a negative one, and a sen- 
tence in which something is affirmed or positively asserted, is an affirmative 
one. " Vice degrades us/ 7 is an affirmative sentence, and " Labor does not 
injure us," is a negative one. Not, nothing, none at all, by no means, no, in no 
wise, neitlier, no, none, fyc, are negative terms. 

The phrase, " I have nothing/ 7 lias one negative, and means, u I have not 
any thing. 77 The phrase, "I have not nothing/ 7 cannot mean the same 
as u I have nothing/ 7 but must mean, on the contrary, " I have something." 
This last, you perceive, is an affirmative sentence, and signifies the same as the 
foregoing one, " I have not nothing. 77 Two negatives, therefore, are equal to 
an affirmative. Hence, 



RULE XIX. 
Two negatives in the same sentence, are equivalent to 

an affirmative. 

639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" He spends all the day in idle- " Be (1.) honest, nor (2.) take (3.) 

ness, and I cannot prevail on no shape nor semblance of 

him to do nothing.' disguise." 

" He cannot get no employment " He is so (4.) indolent, that he 

in town." will not do nothing." 

" I cannot by no means consent." " I did not say nothing." 

" I shall not take no interest in " He cannot do nothing accepta 

the affair." ble to John." 

" I never studied no grammar." 

Remarks. — For nothing, in the above examples, read anxjthing, in accord- 
ance with Rule XIX. 



LX. What is the meaning of negative ? 
638. affirmative ? 638. 

What is a negative sentence ? 638. 
An affirmative one ? 638. Give an ex- 
ample of each. 

Will you name a few negative terms ? 
638. 

How many negatives has the phrase 
" I have nothing," and what does it 
mean ? 638. 

Meaning of " I have not nothing" ? 
638. 

How many negatives has it ? 

What kind of a sentence is "I have 
something" ? 638. 



What is " I have not nothing" equal 
to in expression ? 638. 

What, then, can we say of two nega- 
tives ? Rule XIX. 

Will you next take the exercises under 
Rule XIX. ? 

What is a noun ? 4. article ? 350 
adjective ? 363. pronoun ? 381. verb i 
438. participle ? 498. adverb ? 588. 
preposition ? 595. conjunction ? 602. 
interjection ? 607. common noun ? 301. 
proper noun i 302. definite article i 80. 
indefinite article ? 83. 

How many properties in grammar have 
nouns ? 308. How many have verbs ?* 



(1 .) Be agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule VII. 
(2.) For her, read and. 

(3.) Take is in the imperative mood, and agrees with thoii or you understood, and is therefore connected 
t<» le. according to Rule XI. 
(4.) Adverb. 
# Mood, tense, number, and person. 



EXERCISES. 



105 



640. PROMISCUOUS EXEROISES IN SYNTAX. 
" Deep rivers move with silent 

majesty ; but small brooks 
are noisy." 

" Deeds are fruits ; words are but 
leaves." 

u It is a bad horse indeed that 
will not carry his own prov- 
ender." 

" The hog never looks up to him 
who threshes down the a- 
corns." 

" Add not trouble to the grief- 
worn heart." 

" Tf the counsel be good, it is no 
matter who gives it." 

" By others' faults wise men cor- 

__ rect their own." 

" When the world says you are 
wise and good, ask yourself 
if it be true." 

" Sin and misery are constant 
companions." 

641. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose one sentence describing the business of as in- 
structor ? One, the business of a doctor ? One, the business of a law- 
yer f One, of a dentist f One, of a surgeon? One, of a farmer? One, 
of a blacksmith ? One, of a miller ? One, of a merchant 9 One, of a 
grocer ? One, of an apothecary ? One, of a legislator ? One, of a. judge ? 
One, of a colonel ? One, of a captain ? One, of a general ? One, of an 
agent in a factory ? One, of the directors of a bank ? 



" Power discovers the disposition 
of man." 

" Quarrels are easily begun, but 
with difficulty ended." 

" Force without forecast is of lit- 
tle worth." 

" Rome was not built in one 
day." 

" In youth and strength think of 
old age and weakness." 

" All are not saints who go to 
church." 

" To say well is good, but to do 
well is better." 

" No fear should deter us from 
doing good." 

" Pride, perceiving Humility hon- 
orable, often borrows her 
cloak." 

"Say what is well, but do what 
is better." 



LXI. 



642. When I say, " He taught me grammar," I mean, " He taught gram- 
mar to me :" grammar, then, is the object of the verb, and ?ne is governed by 
the preposition to, understood. In the first example, we have two objective 
cases after the verb taught ; and since there are many instances like the pre- 
ceding, in which transitive verbs are followed by two objective cases — hence 
the following 

How many participles are there ?* 
What are thej ? 500, 502, 504. 

When is a verb active ? 439. 

When transitive ? 440. When intran- 
sitive ? 441. How mty it be known ? 
154. 

Will you decline J ? thou ? he? she ? 
it ? 127. 

Of what person is I? my 1 us? their ? 
you 7 127. 

What is mood ? 451. the indicative ? 
452. potential ? 453. subjunctive ? 456. 
infinitive ? 479. imperative ? 472. How 
many tenses has the indicative ? 525. 
subjunctive ? 526. potential ? 527. in- 
finitive? 528. imperative ? 529. What 



are the signs of the present tense ? 519. 
imperfect ? 520. perfect ? 521. pluper- 
fect ? 522. first future ? 523. second 
future ? 524. 

Will you now parse the promiscuous 
exercises ? 

Will you next take the sentences to bo 
written ? 

LXI. " He taught me grammar." 
What does this mean? 642. What, then, 
is the- object of the verb, and by what is 
grammar governed ? 642. By what is nit 
governed ? 642. 

How many objective cases, then, fol- 
low the verb taught? 642. 



* Three. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rtrz.2: xx. 

Two objective cases, the one of a person, and the other 
of a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking, 
teaching, giving, fyc; a preposition being under- 
food. 

" He taught me grammar." 

Remark 1. — In the foregoing example, me and grammar are both governed 
oy lauglit, according* to Rule XX. 

IN SYNTAX. 

" My instructor gave me a valua- 
ble book, for my attention to 
stud}?-." 

" She forbade him the presence of 
the emperor. " 

" The French dented him the 
privilege of an American citi- 
zen." 



643. EXAMPLES 

4 He taught me grammar." 

" William asked me some ques- 
tions." 

" My mother wrote me a precious 
letter in the month of May." 

" They allowed him his seat in 
Congress." 

" John gave me a detailed account 
of the whole transaction." 



LXll. 

G44. The natural construction of the passive voice requires the object of the 
active verb to become the nominative to the passive verb ; as, " He taught me 
grammar f* " Grammar was taught me." In some few instances, just the re- 
verse takes place ; as, " I was taught fframmar 5" here the object, grammar 
is placed after the verb : we therefore derive the following 



UTILE XXI. 

An objective case may follow passive verbs of asking, 
teaching, and some others : as, " I was taught gram- 



mar. 



•>•> 



\tT Apply to J, Rule VI. 5 to was taught, Rule VII. j to grammar, Rule 
XXI. 



645. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



" John taught me music." 
u Music was taught me by John." 
u A question was asked me." 
u Theresa was forbidden the pres- 
ence of the emperor." 



" I was taught grammar." 

" The presence of the emperor 

was forbidden Theresa." 
" Reading is taught in almost ev- 
ery school." 



What rule is given for cases of this 
description ? XX. 

By what are me and grammar govern- 
ed? 642. Remark 1. 

Will you next parse the exercises un- 
der Rule XX. ? 

LiXII. What, is the natural construc- 
tion of the passive voice in reference to 



the object ? 644. Give an example. 
644. Give an example where the re- 
verse takes place. 644. 

Where is the object placed ? 644. 

" I was taught grammar." Will you 
parse / 1 was taught ? grammar ? 

Will you next take the exercises un- 
der Rule XXI. ? 



EXERCISES. 107 



LXIII. 

646. When I say, " He came home last May," the sense is, when fully ex- 
pressed, " He came to his home in last May." "John continued four years at 
the university ;" that is, " during four years." " The horse ran a mile ;" that 
is, " over the space of a mile." " John went that way 5" that is, " over that 
way." From these facts we derive the following 

RULE XXII. 

Home, and nouns signifying which way, how far, how 
long, or time when, 4rc, are in the objective case ; a 
preposition being understood. 

647. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" He came home last May." " Susan rides out every day." 

11 John continued four years at " William sleeps comfortably all 

the university." night." 

" John went home once a month." " John was absent from home six 

" Charles studies six hours every years." 

day.' " James lived six years at Boston, 

" John rode that way." twelve years at Dedham " 
" He ran a mile." 

Note XVII. — After the words like and unlike, the prep- 
osition to or unto is frequently understood; as, "He is like 
his father ;" that is, "like to his father." " She is unlike 
her sister ;" that is, C; unlike to her sister." 

648 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"He is like his brother." "John behaves like a man in a 

"William, unlike his father, fal- violent rage." 

sified his word." " He is unlike any other mortal." 

Note XVIII. — Nouns signifying duration, extension, 

quantity, quality or valuation, are in the objective case, 

without any governing word. The following are examples : 

"The Atlantic ocean is three thou- "The cart weighs fifteen hundred 

sand miles (1.) wide." pounds." 

* William's knife is worth eight- "The wall which separates China 
een pence, or twenty-five fr m Tartary, commonly call- 

cents." ea * me g r eat Chinese wall, is 

" For that article, which is richly fifteen hundred miles long, 

worth a dollar, (2.) we cannot and from twenty to thirty feet 

always get fifty cents." in height." 

* " The chasm is fifty feet broad." 

Remarks.— (1.) The noun miles is governed according to Note XVIII. 

(2.) Apply Note XVIII. 

LXIII. "He came home last May." Will you parse the exercises under 
What does this mean, when more fully Rule XXII. 1 
expressed 1 646. Will you parse home? What is the note respecting like and 



May? 



? unlike? XVII. 



"John continued four years at the "He is like his father." How is 

university." " The horse ran a mile." father parsed 1 Note XVII. 

What do these sentences mean, when Will you next take the remaining ex- 

fully expressed "? ercises under Note XVII. 1 



108 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note XIX. — The conjunction as, after such, many, and 
same, is generally considered a relative pronoun ; as in the 
following examples : 

pleased 



as 



" He took such books 
him." 

" He exhibited the same course 
of conduct as was once before 
exhibited on the same occa- 
sion." 



■ l He receives into his school as 
many scholars as (1.) apply." 

" Our instructer, who is scrupu- 
lously exact in the execution 
of justice, punishes severely 
all such as disobey his com- 
mands." 

Remarks.— {1.) As is a conjunction, used here as a relative, according to the 
Note preceding- 3 of the third person plural, masculine gender, agreeing with 
scholars, according to Rule V. 5 and in the nominative case to apply, accord- 
ing to Rule VI. 

Note XX. — -The conjunction than seems to have the 
force of a preposition before the relative whom, in a sentence 
where a comparison is made ; as follows : 

" Which, when Beelzebub per- 
ceived, than whom, (1.) Satan 



(2.) excepted, (3.) none higher 
sat." 



" Alfred, than whom, Solomon 
excepted, a wiser king never 
reigned, was one of the earli- 
est English kings." 

Remarks. — (1.) Whom is governed by the conjunction than, used as a prep- 
osition, according to Note XX. — (2.) Apply Rule XVII.— (3.) Participle, 
agreeing with Satan, by Rule XIII. — It is somewhat remarkable, that if, in 
the last two examples, the personal pronoun he were substituted for whom, it 
would be in the nominative case ; as, " A wiser king neve*- reigned than he;" 



G49. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having a proper example under Rule 
I.? II.? III? IV.? V.? VI.? VII.? VIII. ? IX.? X.P XL? XII. 3 
XIII.? XIV.? XV.? XVI.? XVII.? XVIII. ? XIX.? XX.? XXL' 
XXII. ? 

Will you construct a sentence descriptive of the calamities arising 
from fire? one, on losses by sea? one, on the fatal effects of lightning ? 
one, on the character of our forefathers? one, on each of the seasons? 
one, on the effects of rain? one, on the manner of making hay? one, 
on the appearance of soldiers ichen training? one, on the celebration 
of the fourth of July? one, on the utility of fire? one, on the utility 
of v:ood? one, on the usefulness of the coio? one, on fruit ? 



When is the conjunction as used as a 
relative pronoun ? Note XIX. 

Will you par<se as, in the phrase " He 
received into his school as many scholars 
as applied-' ? Note XIX. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises 
under this Note ? 

When is than considered a preposition? 
Note XX. Give an example. 

What would be the effect of using the 
personal pronoun instead of the relative? 
Observation under Note XX. Give an 
example. 

Will you now take the sentences to be 
parsed and written ? 

How many articles are there ? 351. 
Will you name them ? 351. When do 
we use a 1 87, 357: When an ? 86. 



What does English grammar teach I 
288. Row many parts of speech are 
there in English ? 299. 

What does orthography include ? 291. 

What does it teach us ? 291. 

What does etymology teach ? 293. 

What are proper nouns ? 302. 

What are common nouns ? 301. 

In what manner may proper names bo 
used as common names ? 303. 

How may common names be used to 
represent individuals ? 304. 

What is a collective noun ? 306. 

What four things belong to nouns ? 308 

What is gender/ 312. Masculine gen- 
der ? 314. Feminine gender ? 315. 
Common gender ? 316. Neuter gender ? 
317. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 109 

LXIV OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 

650. That is a relative, 

When who or which may be substituted for it, and make sense , 
as, " The man that [who] arrived yesterday." 

651. That is a demonstrative pronoun, 

When it is joined with a noun to point it out; as, " That man is 
intelligent." 

652. That is a conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pro- 
noun ; as, " He studies that he may learn." 

653. But is a preposition, 

When it has the sense of except; as, "All but [except] John 
came." 

654. But is an adverb, 

When it has the sense of only ; as, " This is but [only] doing our 
duty." 

655. But is a conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition ; as, " He 
called, but I refused to go." 

656. As is a relative, 

When it follows many, such, or same : as, " Let such as hear take 
heed." * 

657. As is an adverb, 

When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense ofso , as 
jj| He does as well as he can." 

658. As is a conjunction, 

In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as, " He did 
as I directed him." 

659. Either is a conjunction. 

When it corresponds to or ; as, " Either the one or the other." 

660. Either is a distributive pronoun, 

When it means "one of the two;" as, "You can take either 
road." 

661. Both is a conjunction, 

When it is followed by and ; as, " We assisted him both for his 
sake and our own." 

How may nouns, naturally neuter, be noun ? 651. Give an example. When a 

converted into the masculine or feminine conjunction ? 652. Give an example, 

gender ? 318. When is but a preposition ? 653. Give 

What is the feminine corresponding to an example. When an adverb ? 654. 

bachelor 7 319. How is the feminine Give an example. When a conjunction ? 

here formed ? 655. Give an example. 

Will you spell the feminine corres- When is as a relative ? 656. Give an 

ponding to lad 7 king 7 benefactor 7 319. example. When an adverb ? 657. Give 

How is the feminine here formed ? an example. When a conjunction ? 658. 

Will you spell the feminine corres- Give an example, 

ponding to baron 7 poet 7 priest 7 Jew 7 When is either a conjunction ? 659. 

votary 7 tutor 7 hero 7 duke7 instruct er 7 Give an example. When a distributive 

219. pronoun ? 660. Give an example. 

LXIV. When is that a relativo ? 650. When is hot h a conjunction ? 661. Give 

Give an example. A demonstrative pro- an example. When an adjective pronoun? 

662. Give an example. 

10 K 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

662. Both is an adjective pronoun. 

When it means " the two ;" as, " Both the men are guilty.* 7 

663. Yet is a conjunction, 

When it follows though ; as, " Though he reproves me, yet 1 
esteem him." In all other cases, it is an adverb ; as, " That event 
has yet to come." 

664. For is a conjunction, 

When it means the same as because ; as, " He trusted him, for he 
knew that he would not deceive him." 

665. For is a preposition, 

In all instances except when it is a conjunction ; as, " He works 
for me." 

666. What is a compound relative, 

When it stands for " that which j" as, " I will take what [that 
which] you send me." 

667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun, 
When used in asking questions ; as, " What do you want ?" 
66S. What is an adjective pronoun, 

When joined with a noun ; as, " What strange things he said !" 

669. What is a compound adjective pronoun, 

When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words; 
as, " In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, 
" The manner in which he succeeded, is unknown to me." 

670. What is an interjection, 

When used to express wonder ; as, " What ! take my money ?" 

671. Then is a conjunction, 

W r hen it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it, 
then I must obey." 

672. Then is an adverb, 

When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunder then ?" 

673. Much is a noun, 

When it stands for quantity ; as, " Where much is given, much 
will be required." 

674. Much is an adjective, 

When it is joined to nouns } as, " Much labor fatigues us." 

675. Much is an adverb, 

When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does ; 
as, " Thou art much mightier than I." 

676. More is a noun, 

When it implies quantity ; as, " The more we have, the more we 
want." 

When is yet a conjunction ? 663. Give When an interjection ? 670. Give an ex- 

an example. When an adverb ? 663. ample. 

Give an example. When is then a conjunction r 671. Give 

When is for a conjunction ? 664. Give an example. When an adverb ? 672. 

an example. When a preposition ? 665. Give an example. 

Give an example. When is much a noun ? 673. Give an 

When is what a compound relative ? example. When an adjective ? 674. Give 

C66. Give an example. When an inter- an example. When an adverb ? 675. 

rogative relative pronoun ? 667. Give an Give an example. 

example. When an adjective pronoun ? When is more a noun ? 676. Give an 

668. Give an example. When a com- example, 
pound pronoun ? 669. Give an example 






EXERCISES. 



Ill 



677. More and most are adjectives, 

When they qualify a noun ; as, " The more joy I have, the more 
>rrow I expect ;" " Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of hap- 
less." 

678. More and most are adverbs, 

When used in comparisons ; as, " This boy is more obedient than 
it;" " The soil of Cuba is most fertile." 



>79. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



ley perfume their garments. ' 
perfume is a sweet odor." 
'hey rise early in the morn- 
ing." 

" A rise sometimes signifies the 
beginning." 

" Rufus speaks the language of 
truth." 

" James performed his part well." 

" A well is a fountain of water." 

u A well man is one who enjoys 
his health." 

u We frequently walk in the gar- 
den." 

« The Jews fast often." 

" He walks very fast." 

* The refuse signifies the worth- 
less remains." 

" Desert not a friend." 

" Joseph's brethren came and 
bowed down before him." 

" William went after his slate." 

\ 

M The man that I saw, was ex- 
ecuted." 

" That man that you met yester- 
day in the street, was taken 
and sent to Boston, that he 
might have an impartial trial." 

" We assisted him both for your 
sake and our own." 



" His elder brethren came before 
Benjamin did." 

" John left after William came." 

" Evil communications corrupt 
good manners." 

u Corrupt conversation is very 
foolish." 

" A walk in the fields in the sum- 
mer season is delightful." 

M A true fast is abstaining from 
iniquity." 

" Sin is a moral evil, and the 
cause of natural evils." 

" Protest not rashly, lest thou 
have to repent of it." 

u A protest is a solemn declara- 
tion against a thing." 

" Do nothing rashly, lest thou 
precipitate thyself into inex- 
tricable difficulty." 

" Hasty promises are seldom 
kept." 

" Did you hear the report of the 

cannon then?" 
" Where much is given, much 

will be required." 
" Future time is yet to come." 
" He trusted him, for he knew 

that he would not deceive 

him." 



When are more and most adjectives ? 
677. Give examples of each. When ad- 
verbs ? 678. Give examples of each. 

What is number 7 5. What does the 
singular number denote ? 8. What the 
plural ? 10. 

What nouns have the singular form on- 
ly ? 324. What the plural ? 325. What 
are the same in both numbers ? 326. 

How is the plural number of nouns gen- 
erally formed ? 327. 

When nouns end in eft, sft, &c, how do 
they form the plural ? 328. 

How do those ending inforfe ? 329. 

How is the plural formed, when the sin- 
gular ends in y, with no other vowel in 
the same syllable ? 330. 

What is case ? 333. The nominative 
case ? 335. Possessivo case ? 337. How 



formed ? 338. How formed when the si>n • 
gular ends in ss ? 341. 

What does the objective case express ? 
343. 

Will vou decline man ? book ? 345. 
chair ? 345. 

Will you parse the promiscuous exer- 
cises ? 

What is an adjective ? 363. What 
does the positive state express i 365. 
Comparative ? 366. Superlative . 367 
How is the comparative formed in mono- 
syllables ? 369. How in more syllables 
than one ? 370. 

How do you compare the following ad- 
jectives ? — good ? bad 1 wise ? little 1 
small ? virtuous ? many ? old 1 115. 

When does an adjective become a noun 
in parsing ? 378. 



112 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



M Both the men are guilty." 

u Although he reproves me, yet I 

esteem him." 
" All but John came." 
" This is but doing our duty." 
" He called me, but I refused to 

go-" 
" Let such as hear take heed." 

" He did as I directed him." 

" You may take either the one or 

the other." 
" Either road will conduct you to 

the right place." 
" If he has commanded it, then I 

must obey," 

" Susan is determined to learn." 

" By framing excuses he prolong- 
ed his stay." 

" The man who is faithfully at- 
tached to religion may be re- 
lied on with confidence." 

" James, do visit me." 



3. 



" He works for me," 
" He refused what was sent him. ' 
" What strange things he saw '* 
" In what manner he succeeded 

is unknown to me." 
" What! will you take my life ?" 
" The more we have, the more 

we want." 
" The more joy I have, the more 

sorrow I expect." 
•' The most dutiful children are 

the happiest children." 
" Much labor fatigues me." 
" Thou art much mightier than 1 

am." 

" Virtue and vice are opposites.' 
" When John's father asked him 
that question, he heard him, 
but refused to answer him." 
" The wall is sixty feet high." 
" To meet our friends after a long 
absence affords us much joy." 



LXV. CONTRACTIONS. 



680. Of the Auxiliary Have, also of Had 

They've forsaken him." " I've satisfied myself." 

from 



I'd gone when you came.' 
They'd just returned 
town." 



They'd determined to let him 
go" 



681. Of Will and Would. 

I'll finish my work first." " He is still determined that he'll 

They'd sing songs till midnight, not forbear." 

if they were urged." " He'll at last mind me." 



Will you name a few adjectives which 
have in themselves a superlative significa- 
tion ? 374. 

What is a pronoun ? 381. A personal 
pronoun ? 382. Why called personal ? 
382. 

How many persons have pronouns in 
each number ? 383. How many num- 
bers ? 384. 

To which of the pronouns is gender ap- 
plied ? 382. 

How many cases have pronouns ? 384. 

Will you decline / 7 thou ? he? she 7 
it. 7 127. 

What kind of a pronoun is myself? 386. 
How formed ? 388. 

What is a relative pronoun ? 409. 
Why called relative ? 408. 

W*hat is said of the relative what ? 429. 

How ought who to be applied i 412. 



How which ? 413. How may that be 
used ? 415. 

When are pronouns called interroga 
tive ? 431. 

What are adjective pronouns ? 390 
How many kinds of adjective pronoun 
are there ? 391. 

Which are the demonstrative ? 398. 
Why so called ? 398. The distributive ? 
393. Why so called ? 393. The indefi- 
nite ? 402. Why so called ? 401. 

To what do this and that refer ? 400. 

Will you decline owe ? 404. other ? 
403. 

What is the rule by which pronouns 
agree with their antecedents ? V. 

Which words in sentences are antece- 
dents ? 420. 

What are subsequents ? 431. 

Will you parse the exercises marked 2 .' 






CONTRACTIONS. 113 

682. Of Am and Is. 

" That man's rich." " 'Tis strange that she will not 

v 'Tis true she's dead." regard the kind assistance of 

" I'm sorry that you have mis- her friend " 
spent your time." 

683. Of Cannot and Will not. 

' He can't endure such afflic- " He won't disobey me." 

tions." " You won't mistake the direc 
You can't be absent at such tion." 

times." 

684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an lnteirogative 

Sentence. 
" Who will assist me ?" " John" " What will make me respectabla 

[will assist me]. and happy?" " Virtue." 

" What sent our forefathers to " Who taught him grammar ?' 

this country ?" » The love of « Mr. Williams." 

liberty." 

685. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxiliary. 

" Stephen will go if John will" " He received me in the same 
[go]. manner that I would you." 

P Susan shall walk, but John " I will do it as soon as I can." 

shall not." " The work is not completed, but 

" 1 have recited ; have you ?" soon will be." 

686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As. 

" Thomas is a better scholar than " Johnson is richer than James. 

William" [is]. " Susan is not so beautiful as 
P He was more beloved than Cin- Mary." 

thia, but not so much ad- " She is more playful than her 

mired." brother." 

687. Omissions of the verb To be. 

* Sweet the pleasure, rich the " Delightful task, to rear the ten- 
treasure." der thought, 

I A child of freedom thou." To teach the young idea how to 
' Sweet the music of birds." shoot." 

1 Dear the schoolboy's sport." 

What is a verb ? 438. tive ? 472. Subjunctive ? 456. Infini- 

What is an active verb ? 439. tive ? 479. 

When i3 an active verb transitive ? 440. What are participles ? 498. How may 

When intransitive ? 441. the participles in ing be distinguished 

What is a passive verb ? 444. How from other words of like termination ? 

Jbrmed ? 510. 500. 

How may a transitive verb be known ? How many, and which are the partici- 

J54. pies ?% What does*^ the present express ? 

How an intransitive ? 154. 500. Perfect ? 502. Compound perfect ? 

What is a neuter verb ? 450. 504. 

Will you next take the exercises mark- LXV. Will you next parse the con- 

td 3 ? " tractions ? 680. 

What belong to verbs ?* What is tense ? 494. What is the pres- 

How many numbers have they ? How ent used for ? 482. The perfect ? Imper- 

many persons ?f feet? 488. Pluperfect? 491. First fu- 

What is mood ? 451. How many are ture ? 492. Second future ? 493. 

there? 481. Will you name them ? Under what circumstances do we use 

What is the indicative mood used for ? the present tense to denote the relative 

452. The potential ? 453. The impera- time of a future action ? 484. 

* Mood, tense, number and person. t Three. t Three— the present, perfect, and compound perfect 

10* 



114 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



688. Omissions of May, Might, Could, Would, and Should. 
Live long and be happy." " He might not weep, nor laugh, 
Who will entreat the Lord that nor sing/' 

he spare our lives ?" " Should I forgive you, and allow 

I could not think, nor speak, you to depart, you would not 

nor hear." reform." 

689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the Verb in the Sub- 

junctive Mood. 
If he will repent and reform, I " Had I improved my time as 1 



ought to have done, I should 
have been well qualified for 
business." 
" Were there no alternative, I 
would not do that." 



will assist him." 
Unless good order be restored, 
and the former officers be re- 
elected, there will be an end 
to the administration of jus- 
tice." 

690. Otnissions of For after Verbs implying the idea of serving 
Make me a pen." " Bring me some water." 
Order me a carriage." " Purchase him a knife." 

691. Omissions of the Interjection. 

Sweet child ! lovely child ! thy u Thou Preserver and Creator of 
parents are no more." all mankind." 

Sweet blossom ! precious to my " My beloved Ulrica ! hast thou 
heart." too, forgotten me ?" 

692. Omissions of the Relative. 

Several men are there come " I trust that he I desire to see so 
from Europe." much, will speedily return." 



LXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES. 



693. The Nominative Case placed after the Verb. 
" Smack went the whip, round guished for his learning and 



went the wheels 
Were ever folks so glad ?" 
u There goes a man alike distin- 



politeness." 
" And in soft ringlets waved her 
golden hair." 



In what sort of descriptions do we use 
the present for the past tense ? 486. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? 53]. 

What is the conjugation of an active 
verb styled ? 532. A passive verb? 532. 

How many tenses has the indicative ? 
525. Potential? 527. Subjunctive? 526. 
Imperative ? 529. Infinitive ? 528. 

What is the sign of the present indica- 
tive ? 519. The imperfect? 520. Per- 
fect ? 521. Pluperfect ? 522. First fu- 
ture ? 523. Second future? 524. The 
potential mood ? 515. Infinitive ? 517. 
Subjunctive ? 516. How many persons 
has the imperative ? 518. How many 
tenses ? 529. How many forms has the 
subjunctive mood ? 461. In what do they 
differ ? 401. 



Will you now parse the omissions? 
684, &c. 

How is the passive verb formed ? 510. 

Will you decline love in the indicative 
present, passive ? and the verb to be in the 
imperfect ? Perfect ? Pluperfect ? First 
future ? Second future ? Present poten- 
tial ? Imperfect ? Perfect ? Pluperfect ? 
Present subjunctive, common form ? Im- 
perfect ? Perfect ? Pluperfect ? First fu- 
ture ? Second future ? 

In what voice, mood, tense, number and 
person, is "I love" ? " We love" ? " They 
are loved" ? " You are" ? " I did learn" ? 
"John was instructed"? "He was"? 
" They have returned 1 " ? " Have they 



gone 



They have been" ? " I had 



had" ? " They had been distinguished" 



SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 115 

694. The Objective Case before the Verb. 

1 Tyrants no more their savage " Me glory summons to the mar- 
nature kept, tial scene," 
And foes to virtue wondered how " The rolls of fame I will not now 
they wept." explore." 

695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule VIII. ? One 
Rule IX. ? X. ? XI. ? XII. ? XIII. ? XIV. ? Will you compose a 
sentence on the use of the dog ? One, on the clouds? One, on night ? 
One, on wind? One, on snoic? One, on hail? One, on ice? One, 
on skating ? One, on fishing ? One, on courage ? One, on cowardice? 
One, on filial duty ? One, on indolence ? One, on schools ? 

696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 

" Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown." 

Transposed. 
" A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head 
upon the lap of earth." 

" When, young, life's journey I began, 

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ; 
I saw along the extended plain, 

Joy after joy successive rise : 
Rut soon I found 'twas all a dream, 

And learned the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach the purposed aim, 

And thousands daily are undone." 

Transposed. 
" I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect 
charmed my eyes ; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex- 
tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to 
shun the fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and 
thousands are daily undone.' 

" Needful austerities our wills restrain, 
As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." 

Transposed. 
" Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the ten- 
der plant from harm." 

"Thou hadst been"? "You shall he Will you give the synopsis of desire in 

taught"? " Shall I be punished?" "He the active voice, with the participles, 

shall have been"? Of the same in the passive : Of do in the 

LXVI. Will you parse the inverted active ? In the passive ? 

sentences ? 693, &c. When is a verb called regular ? 533 

In what voice, mood, tense, number and When irregular ? 534. 
person, is " Love thou" ? " I may go"? Will you repeat the present and imper- 
" You may be regarded"? "You might feet tenses, also the perfect participle- 
be rejoiced" ? "She may have been re- of am ? seel hear? do? iceep? sink? 
fused" ? " We should have been" ? " if swim ? 

I have" ? " If thou have" ? " If thou Will you next take the sentences to be 

hast" ? " To have" ? " To have been"? written ? 

Will you give the synopsis of learn. What are auxiliary verbs ? 511. 

through all the moods, tenses, &.c, in the How many and which are they ? 51& 

first person, including the participle ? What are defective verbs ? 579. 

Learn, in like manner, in the passive? What is an adveib ? 588. Why so call* 

The verb to be in the same manner ? ed ? 228. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 
E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, 
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires." 

Transposed. 
" The parting soul relies on some fond breast ; the closing eye 
requires some pious drops ; the voice of nature cries, even from the 
tomb; and their wonted fires live even in our ashes." 

" From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high, 
And opened wondrous scenes above the sky, 
My Muse ! descend ; indulge my fond desire ; 
With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire, 
And smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; 
A partial world will listen to my lays,. 
While Anna reigns, and sets a female name 
Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 

Transposed. 

" O my Muse ! descend thou from lofty themes, and from thoughts 
that soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky ; 
indulge thou my fond desire ; and do thou inspire my melting soul 
with softer thoughts, and smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; 
a partial world will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a 
female name unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 

In what manner are adverbs compared ? What is the rule for the agreement of 

236,234. nouns? XV. Articles? II., III. Ad- 

What are the phrases which do the of- jectives ? IV. Pronouns ? V. Verbs ? 

fice of adverbs called ? 589. VII. Participles ? XIII. Agreement of 

Will you name a few ? 589. a verb plural with two nouns singular ? 

What is a preposition ? 595. XVIII. Adjective pronouns and numer- 

Will you repeat the list of prepositions ? als ? Note I. 

247. What is the rule by which a verb agrees 

What is a conjunction ? 602. Con- with a noun of multitude, or collective 

junction copulative ? 265. Why so call- noun ? Note XVI. Rule for the objective 

ed ? 264. Conjunction disjunctive ? 274. case after a transitivo verb ? VIII. 

Why so called ? 271. What is the rule for the objective case 

Will you repeat the list of copulative after a preposition ? X. After a partici- 

conjunctions ? 266. Of disjunctive con- pie ? XIV. Rule for the adverb ? IX. 

junctions? 275. Rule respecting the interjections O! oh! 

What is an interjection ? 607. Why ah ! &c. ? Note X. 

so called ? 283. Mention a few ? 285. Will you parse the sentences markod 

What is syntax ? 296. What is a sen- transposed ? 
tence ? 252 A simple sentence ? 253. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 



SYNTAX. 



That part of Grammar which treats of the formation and sound 
of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syl- 
lables into words, is called Orthography. 

That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their 
various changes and their derivations, is called Etymology. 

That part which treats of the union and right order of words 
in the formation of sentences, is called Syntax. 

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, 
Universal and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the 
principles which are common to all languages. Particular 
Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi- 
fying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the 
established practice of the best writers and speakers by whom it 
is used. 

Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the ex- 
pression of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain ar- 
ticulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and 
relations. An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, 
formed by the organs of speech. 

Letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, 
Jie elements of the language. 

The letters of the English Language, called the English Al- 
phabet, are twenty- six in number, each of which constitutes the 
first principle, or least part of a word. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. 
The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. W and y 
are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in eve- 
ry other situation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded with- 
out the aid of a vowel ; as, b, d, /, I. All letters except the 
vowels are consonants. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vow- 
el. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. 
They are /, I, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, 
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it 
were, into their sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a sin- 
gle impulse of the voice ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce, 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like 
manner ; as, eau in beau, iew in view, 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; 
as, ea in eagle, oa in boat, 

A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, uttered 
by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part 
of a word ; as, a, an, ant, 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; a word of 
two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyl- 
lable ; a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent as 
signs of our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler 
word in the language ; as, man, good, 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler 
word ; as, manful, goodness. 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, pro- 
duce a syllable ; syllables, properly combined, produce a word ; 
words, duly combined, produce a sentence ; and sentences, prop- 
erly combined, produce an oration, or discourse, 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete 
sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* 
verb ; as, " Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together ; as, " Life is short, and art is long." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the 
members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and compound 
members 5 for whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become 
members of other sentences, by means of some additional connection ; as in 
the following example : u The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's 
crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." This sentence 
consists of two compounded members, each of which is subdivided into two 
simple members, which are properly called clauses. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making 
sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sen- 
tence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the 
attribute, and the object. 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in the 
infinitive mood have no respect to number and person. 



SYNTAX. 1W 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the 
thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object is the 
thing affected by such action. 

The nominative case denotes the subject ; and usually goes 
before the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase denoting 
the object, follows the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his pas- 
sions." Here a wise man is the subject ; governs, the attribute 
or thing affirmed ; and his passions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Govern- 
ment. Concord is the agreement which one word has with 
another in gender, number, case, or person. Government is that 
power which one part of speech has over another, in directing 
its mood, tense, or case. 

What is Orthography 1 Etymology ? Syntax ? How many kinds of 
grammar are there ? What are they ? What is universal grammar 1 Par- 
ticular grammar ? What is language 1 What is an articulate sound ? What 
are letters 1 What are the letters of the English language called ? What 
does each constitute ? How are letters divided 1 What is a vowel ? Which 
are they 1 How many do they make 1 When are w and y consonants ? 
when vowels ? What is a consonant ? Give an example. Which letters are 
consonants ? How are the consonants divided 1 What is a mute ? Which 
are they 1 What is a semi-vowel ? Which are they ? Which of the semi- 
vowels are called liquids, and why ? What is a diphthong 1 Give an exam- 
ple. What is a triphthong ? Give an example. What is a proper diphthong ? 
Give an example. What is an improper diphthong 1 Give an example. 
What is a syllable ? monosyllable ? dissyllable ? trisyllable ? polysyllable ? 
What are words ? Of how many sorts are they ? What is a primitive word ? 
Give an example. What is a derivative word ? Give an example. What 
does an elementary sound produce ? What do syllables produce ? Words ? 
Sentences ? What is a sentence ? How are sentences divided ? What is a 
simple sentence ? Compound sentence ? Give an example of each. How 
are the members of sentences divided ? Give an example. What is a phrase ? 
What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? What is the subject 1 the 
attribute ? the object 1 What does the nominative case denote ? and where 
is it usually placed in a sentence ? Give an example. Of how many parts 
does Syntax consist ? What are they ? What is concord 1 Government ? 

The right construction of sentences may perhaps 
be best learned by correcting examples of wrong con- 
struction. Exercises in false syntax for the pupil, as- 
sisted by rules and notes to parse and correct, will 
therefore now be given. 

The following contain all the notes and observations 
in Murray's large Grammar, together with all his ex- 
ercises in false syntax. 

RULE VII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE I. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number 

and person. 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : u What sig- 
nifies good opinions, when our practice is bad V " what sigrtify" " There^s 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



two or three of us, who have seen the work 5" " there are." " We may sup 
pose there was more impostors than one ;" u there were more." " I have con- 
sidered what have been said on both sides in this controversy 5" " what has 
been said." " If thou would be healthy, live temperately j M " if thou wouldst." 
" Thou sees how little has been clone '" " thou seest." u Though thou cannot 
do much for the cause, thou may and should do something 5" " canst not, 
mayst, and shouldst." " Full many a flower are born to blush unseen 5" a is 
born." u A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for friend- 
ship 5" " prepares us." u A variety of blessings have been conferred upon 
us 5" " 7w*s been." "In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man 5" "con- 
sists." " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules and 
maxims 5" " is subjoined." 

" If thou would be healthy, live temperately." Which word is wrong in 
this example 1 In what particular, wrong ? Why ? What is the Rule for 
it ? How, then, would you correct the example ? — " There was more equivo- 
cators." Which word is wrong here 1 What correction should be made 1 
Why? 

IO* 'The pupil is first to answer the questions on each Rule or Note, then to 
correct and parse the subsequent exercises. It is suggested to the teacher, that 
the pupils should direct their attention first to the Rules and exercises under 
them, exclusively , omitting the Notes, fyc, for a review, when all may be taken 
in course. 

il Disappointments sinks the heart 
of man ; but the renewal of 
hope give consolation." 

" The smiles that (1.) encourage 
severity of judgment hides 
malice and insincerity." 

" He dare not act (2.) contrary (3.) 
to his instructions." 

u Fifty pounds of wheat contains 
forty pounds of flour." 

" The mechanism of clocks and 
watches were totally un- 
known (4.) a few centuries 
ago." (5.) 

11 The number of inhabitants in 
Great Britain and Ireland, do 
not exceed sixteen millions." 

" Nothing (6.) but vain and fool- 
ish pursuits (7.) delight some 
persons." 

" A variety of pleasing objects 
charm the eye." 

"So (8.) much (9.) both (10.) of 
ability and merit (11.) are sel- 
dom (12.) found." 

" In the conduct of Parmenio a 
mixture of wisdom and folly 
(11.) were very (8.) conspicu- 
ous." 

" He is an author (13.) of more 



credit than Plutarch, (14.) or 
any other (15.) that (11.) write 
lives too (12.) hastily." 

The inquisitive (16.) and cu- 
rious (11 .) is generally talka- 
tive." (17.) 

Great pains has been taken to 
reconcile the parties." 

The sincere (16.) is always es- 
teemed." 

Has the goods been sold to ad- 
vantage ? and did thou em- 
brace the proper season ?" 

There is many occasions (6.) in 
life, in which silence and 
simplicity (11.) is true wis- 
dom." 

The generous (16.) never re- 
counts minutely the actions 
they have done ; nor the pru- 
dent, (7.) those (15.) they will 
do." 

He need not proceed (2.) in such 
haste." 

The business that (1.) related to 
ecclesiastical meetings, mat- 
ters (11.) and persons, (11.) 
were to be ordered accord- 
ing (18.) to the king's direc- 
tion." 



(1.) See 650. (2.) Apply Rule XII. See 480. (3.) Adjective. (4.) Rule 
XIII. (5.) A few centuries ago — an adverbial phrase, 589 ; or apply Note XVIII., 
648, to centuries] and Rule IX. to ago. (6.) Rule VI. (7.) Rule XI. (8.) 239 
(9.) 673. (10.) 661. (11.) Rule XI. (12.) Adverb. (13.) Rule XV 613. 
?14.) " Plutarch is." (15.) Note I. 405, and Rule XT. (16.) 378 (17.) Rule 

IV (18.) 247. 



SYNTAX. 121 

* In him were happily blended When our abundance makes us 

true dignity with soilness of wish (12.) for more." 

manners." "Thou shalt love thy neighbor 

" The support of so (1.) many (2.) as (13.) sincerely a* (14.) thou 

of his relations, were a heavy loves thyself." 

tax (3.) upon his industry ; " Has thou no better reason for 
but thou knows he paid it censuring (15.) thy friend and 

cheerfully." companion ?" (16.) 

1 What (4.) avails the best senti- " Thou, who art the Author (17.) 
ments (5.) if persons do not and Bestower (16.) of life, can 

live suitably to them?" doubtless restore it also : but 

" Not one (6.) of them whom thou whether thou will please to 

sees clothed (7.) in purple, restore it, or not, that thota 

are completely happy." only knows." 

" And the fame of this person, " O thou my voice (18.) inspire, 

and of his wonderful actions, Who touched (19.) Isaiah's hal- 
were diffused (8.) throughout lowed lips with fire." 

the country." " Accept (20.) these grateful tears ; 

" The variety of the productions for thee they flow ; 

of genius, like (9.) that (10.) For thee, that ever felt (21.) anoth- 

of the operations of nature. er's wo." 

are without limit." " Just to thy word, in every 

" In vain (1.1.) our flocks and fields thought sincere : 

increase our store. Who knew (22.) no wish but what 

the world might hear." 

1 . The infinitive mood ; or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the nom- 
inative case to the verb ; as, u To see the sun is pleasant j ;; " To be good is 
to be happy 5" " A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commenda- 
ble 3" " That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, 
and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe •" u To be temperate 
in eating- and drinking-, to use exercise in open air, and to preserve the mind 
free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 

" To see the sun are pleasant." Which word is wrong in this example 1 
In what particular, wrong 1 What is pleasant ? What, then, is the nomina 
live case to is ? Is there one thing, or more than one, here spoken of, as being 
pleasant ? Why, then, should we use is in preference to are ? What is the 
Rule for is ? (23.) Rule for " To see/ 7 or " To see the suit' ? (24.) 

[O 3 Wlien examples are referred to without being quoted, the teacher may 
read them to the pupil. 

" To b<? temperate in eating," <fcc. How many things are here spoken of 
as being the best preservatives ? Should we, then, use the singular or plural 
verb ? Rule for it ? (25.) 

1.* 
" To do unto all men, as we " From a fear of the world's cen- 
would that they, in similar sure, to be ashamed (24.) oi 

circumstances, should do unto the practice of precepts, which 

us, constitute the great prin- the heart approves and em 

ciple of virtue." braces, mark a feeble and im- 

perfect character." 

(1.) 239. (2.) 378. (3.) Rule XV. 613. (4.) Rule VIII. (5.) Rule VI 

• 6.) Note I. 405, and Rule VI. (7.) Rule XIII. (8.) 510. (9.) Rule IV 
(10.) '•' that xarictxf— Note I. 405, and Rule X. See Note XVII. 647 (11.) Ad^ 
verbial phrase. (12.) Rule XII. 555. See 480. (13.) Adverb. (14.) Con- 
junction. (15.) Participial noun. (16.) Rule XI. (17.) Rule XV 613. 
(18.) Rule VIII. (19.) " Who touchedst or didst touch. 1 ' 1 (20.) "Accept 
thou"— imp. mood. (21.) "didst feel.'" (22.) "Who hncwest or didst know." 
f23.) Rule VII. (24. > > Note XIII. 626, or Note 1, this page. (25.) Rule XVIII 

11 L 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



u The erroneous ©pinions which 
we form concerning (1.) hap- 
piness and misery gives rise 
to all the mistaken (2.) and 
dangerous passions that cm- 
broils our life." 

" To live soberly, righteously, and 
piously, are required of all 
men." 

u That (3.) it is our duty to pro- 
mote the purity of our minds 
and bodies, to be just (4.) and 
kind to our fellow creatures, 
and to be pious and faithful 
to Him that made us, admit 
not of any doubt in a rational 
and well (5.) informed mind. ' 

" To be of a pure and humble 
mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate 
piety towards God, is the 
sure means (6.) of becoming 
peaceful and happy." 

"It is an important truth, that 
religion, vital religion, the 
religion of the heart, are the 



most powerful auxiliaries t>! 
reason, in waging war with 
the passions, and promoting 
that sweet composure which 
constitute the peace of God." 

" The possession of our senses 
entire, of our limbs uninjured, 
of a sound understanding, oi 
friends and companions, are 
often overlooked ; though it 
would be the ultimate wish 
(6.) of many, who, as far as 
we can judge, deserves it as 
much as ourselves." 

" All (7.) that make a figure on 
the great theatre of the world, 
the employments of the busy, 
the enterprises of the ambi- 
tious, and the exploits of the 
warlike ; the virtues which 
forms the happiness, and the 
crimes which occasions lahe 
misery of mankind ; origi- 
nates in that silent and secret 
recess of thought, which are 
hidden from every human 
eye." 



9. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought to have 
a nominative case, either expressed or implied ', as, " Awake j arise ;" that is, 
u Awake ye • arise ye." 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb 
without its nominative case. " As it hath pleased him of his goodness to give 
you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger," &c. The 
verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, for it cannot be properly sup- 
plied by the preceding word, him, which is in the objective case. It ought to 
be, u and as he hath preserved you ;" or rather, " and to yiesevve you." " If 
the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had continued ;" " and 
which lasted," &c. u These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted 
credit, and are the same that were practised," &c. 5 " and they are the same." 
u A man whose inclinations led htm to be corrupt, and had great abilities to 
manage the business 5" " and who had," &c. " A cloud gathering in the 
north 5 which we have helped to raise, and may quickly break in a storm upon 
our heads 3" " and which may quickly." 

" As it hath pleased," &c. What correction should be made in this exam- 
ple ? Why ? Recite the Note. 



" If the privileges to which he 
has an undoubted right, and 
he has long enjoyed, should 
now be wrested from him, (8.) 
would be flagrant injustice." 

" These curiosities we have im- 
ported from China, and are 



similar to those which were 

some time ago brought from 

Africa." 
" Will martial flames forever fire 

thy mind, 
And never*, never (9.) be to 

heaven resigned ?" 



(1.) Preposition. 
Rule IV. (5.) 

(8.) " it would " 



(2.) Rule XIII. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) " \ust persons 
Adverb. (6.) Rule XV. (7 ) Note I. 405, Rule VI 

(9.) " And wilt tliou never be ?** 



• 






SYNTAX, 123 

3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address 
is made to a person, should belong' to some verb, either expressed or implied ; 
as, " Who wrote this book V ll James 5" that is, " James wrote it." u To 
whom thus Adam," that is. " spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without 
any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the 
usefulness of the preceding observations. 

" Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring- prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which hath been offered up to him." The 

f>ronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb observed ; and which rule is 
eft by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. This form of 
expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, u If this rule 
had been observed," &c. u Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, and 
such from which others as well as himself might receive prcrfit and delight, yet 
they are all within his own breast." In this sentence, the nominative man 
stands alone, and unconnected with any verb, either expressed or implied. It 
should be, " Tliough man has great variety/' &c. 

u Which rule, if it," &c. What is the nominative case to observed ? Has 
the noun rule any verb following it, to which it may be the nominative case ? 
Is this form of expression much used ? Is it not proper ? What correction 
should be made 1 Why 1 Recite the Note. 

3. 

" (1.) Two substantives, lohen u Virtue, however it may be neg- 
they come together, and do lected for a time, men are so 

not signify the same tiling, constituted as ultimately to 

the former (2.) must be in the acknowledge and respect 

genitive case." genuine merit." 

4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be under- 
stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them 3 but 
some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as 
also to that which stands next to the verb ; as, (i His meat was locusts and wild 
honey ;" " A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put 
upon it 5" " The wages of sin is death." 

" The wages of sin is death," or, " Death is the wages of sin." What is 
the nominative case to is ? Is this nominative, in the first example, before or 
after is ? What is the rule for wages ? (5.) Recite the Note. What do you 
mean by llie subject of the affbtfuttian ? (4.) 

4. 

f. The crown of virtue is peace " His chief occupation and en 
and honor." joyment were controversy. 

5. When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb ; but is pu* 
before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence, it is called the 
case absolute 5 as, " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost 5" " That having been 
discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it." 

As, in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the nom- 
inative, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. ci So!- 
omca was of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true prov- 
erbs, as any body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much great- 
er and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted." 

What is the rule for the case absolute 1 (5.) :t He only excepted." Which 
word is wrong in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correc 
tion should be made ? 



(I ) " When ttco substantives come together." (2.) "the first of them 

(3.) Rule XV. 613 (4.) The nominative case. (5,) Rule XVII. 6123 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. 

" Him destroyed, All this (2.) will soon follow. 



Or won to what (1.) may work u Whose gray top 

his utter loss, Shall tremble, him descending' 

The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; but sometimes 
it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense 5 and between the auxiliary and 
the verb or participle, if a compound tense 5 as, 

1st. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed ; 
as, " Confidest thou in me V " Read thou !" " Mayst thou be happy !" 
" Long live the king !" 

2d„ When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, " Were it 
not for this f " Had I been there." 

3d. When a verb neuter is used ; as, " On a sudden appeared the king." 

4th. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, then, thtmce r 
fence, thus, &c. ; as, " Here am I f " There was he slain 5" " Then comeih 
tiic end 5" li Thence ariseth his grief 5" " Hence proceeds liis anger :" " Thus 
was the affair settled." 

5th. When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be coupled with 
another sentence 3 as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye 
die." 

Some grammarians assert, the phrases as fellows, as appears, form what 
are called impersonal verbs 5 and should, therefore, be confined to the singular 
number 5 as, "The arguments advanced were nearly as follows ;" "The 
positions were as appears incontrovertible ;" that is, " as it follows," " as it 
appears." If we give (say they) the sentence a different turn, and, instead of 
as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal j but properly agrees 
with its nominative, in the plural number ; as, " The arguments advanced 
were nearly such as fellow ;" " The positions were such as appear incontro- 
vertible."* 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, " That as, how- 
e\ er and whenever used in English, means the same as U, or that, or which;* 
ail who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, 
should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary the form of expres- 
sion. Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences may be conveyed in tho fol- 
lowing terms :— " The arguments advanced were nearly of the following na- 
ture j" " The following are nearly the arguments which were advanced 5" 
" The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow ;" " It appears 
that the positions were incontrovertible 3" " That the positions were incontro- 
vertible is apparent 3" " The positions were incontrovertible is apparent 3" 
" The positions were apparently incontrovertible." 

Where is the nominative case usually placed 1 Mention a few instances in 
which the nominative follows the verb. What do some grammarians say of 
the phrases as folic* :s, as itppcrtrs ? What is Dr. Campbell's opinion con- 
cerning them ? 

(1.) « that which." 437. (2.) Note I. 405. 

* These grammarians ere supported by general usage, and by the authority of an 
eminent critic on language and composition. " When a verb is used impersonally, " 
says Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, " it ought undoubtedly to be in 
the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood." 
For this reason, analogy and usage favor this mode of expression 3 "The conditions 
of the agreement were as follows," and net " as follow." A few late writers have 
inconsiderately adopted this last form, through a mistake of the construction. For 
the same reason, we ought to say, "I shall consider his censuros bo far only as con- 
cerns my friend's conduct," and not " eo far as concern." 






SYNTAX. 125 

HULS XVIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE ir. 

Ttvo or more nouns or pronouns of the singular numbei , 
connected together by and, either expressed or under- 
stood^ must have verbs, nouns and pronouns agreeing 
with them in the plural number. 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are annexed. " And 
so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were partners with Si- 
mon -" " and so were also. v " All joy, tranquillity and peace, even for ever 
and ever, doth dwell •" "dwell fo. ever.' 7 " By whose power all good and 
evil is distributed 5" "are distributed." " Their love, and their hatred, and 
their envy, is now perished j' 1 " are perished.' 1 " The thoughtless and intem- 
perate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and the forgetfulness of 
our being" accountable creatures, obliterates every serious thought of the proper 
business of life, and effaces the sense of religion and of God 5" it ought to be, 
41 obliterate*' and " efface."' 

" Ail joy, tranquillity, &c, doth dwelt." Which word is wrong in this ex- 
ample ? In what particular, wrong 1 What correction, then, should be made ! 
Why 1 Recite the Rule. 

" Idleness and ignorance is the ignorance under costly at- 

parcnt of many vices." tire." 

" Wisdom, virtue, happiness, " The planetary system, bound- 

dwells with the golden me- less space, and the immense 

diocrity." ocean, affects the mind with 

"In unity consists the welfare sensations of astonishment." 

and security of every so- " Humility and love, whatever 

ciety." (3.) obscurities may involve 

" Time and tide waits for no religious tenets, constitutes 

man." the essence of true religion." 

" His politeness and good disposi- " Religion and virtue, onr best 

tion wa,s, on failure of their support (4.) and highest hon- 

effect, entirely changed." or, confers on the mind prin- 

" Patience and diligence, like (1.) ciples of noble independence." 

faith, (2.) removes moun- " What (5.) signifies the counsel 

tains." and care 01 preceptors, when 

r. Humility and knowledge, with youth think they have no (6.) 

poor apparel, excels pride and need of assistance ?" 

1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in sense, 
and sometimes even when they are very different, some authors have thought 
it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the singular number ; as, 
" Tranquillity and peace dwells there }"' " Ignorance and negligence has pro- 
duced the effect ;" " The discomfiture and slaughter was xery great.' 7 But it 
is evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to consider two dis- 
tinct ideas as one, however nice may be their shades of difference 5 and if 
there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be re- 
jected. 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the verb may be under 
stood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; as in the following example i 
p Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man without un- 
derstanding." But besides the confusion, and the latitude of application, which 



1.) Adverb. (2.) Rule X. See Note XVIT. 647. (3.) Note I. 405. 

4.) Ru!p XV. (5.) Rule VIIT. (80 239 

11 * 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

such a construction would introduce, it appears to be more proper and ana 
logical, in cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the 
terms, to make use of tke disjunct] *e conjunction, which grammatically refers 
the verb to one or other of the preceding- terms, in a separate view. To pre- 
serve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, would 
render the rules precise, consistent and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly ob- 
serves, that " two or more substantives, joined by a copulative, must always 
require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be placed in the plural 
number.' 7 

" Tranquillity and peace dwells there. 77 What dwells ? Is it not, then, a 
violation of Rule XVIII. to use dwells in the singular number ? When do 
some writers think it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the 
singular number 1 Is this usage grammatical 1 In what does the incorrect- 
ness consist ? If there be no difference in the meaning of tenns, are both 
necessary ? What ought to be done with the superfluous one ? How do 
some attempt to support the above construction ? How would they read, on 
this principle, the example beginning 1 with, " Sand, and salt, and a mass of 
iron, 25 easier, 77 &c. ? (I.J In examples like the last, what conjunction can we 
substitute in the place of and, which will better express the sense ? What 
does Dr. Blair say en this subject ? 

1. 

" Much does human pride and " Pride and self-sufficiency stifles 

self-complacency require cor- sentiments of dependence on 

rection." our Creator ; levity and at- 

" Luxurious living, and High tachment to worldly pleasures 

pleasures, begets a languor destroys the sense of gratitude 

and satiety that destroys all to him." 
enjoyment." 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to determine, 
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative 
case j and, consequently, whether the verb should be in the singular or the 
plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of varied examples 
of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar with re- 
spect to sentences of a similar construction. " Prosperity, with humility, ren- 
ders its possessor truly amiable. 77 " The ship, with all her furniture, ivas de- 
stroyed. 77 " Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his miscon- 
duct. 77 " The general, also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for 
redress. 77 " He cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well as 
the people, was blameworthy. 77 " The king, with his life-guard, has just pass- 
ed through the village. 77 " In the mutual influence of body and soul, there is 
a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom. 77 " Virtue, honor, 
nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure. 77 " Patriotism, 
morality, every public and private consideration, demand our submission to 
just and lawful government. 77 " Nothing delights me so much as the works 
of nature. 77 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the authority 
of Hume, Priestley, and other writers j and we annex them for the reader's con- 
sideration : " A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and circum- 
stances, are requisite to produce those revolutions. 77 "The king, with the 
lords and commons, form an excellent frame of government. 77 "The side A. 
with the sides B and C. compose the triangle. 77 " The fire communicated it- 
self to the bed, which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable library 
were all entirely consumed. 77 It is, however, proper to observe, that these 
modes of expression do not appear to be warranted by the just principles of 
construction. The w r ords, " A long course of time, 77 u The king,' 7 " The side 
A, 77 and "which, 77 are the true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the 
last example, the word all should be expunged. As the preposition with gov- 
erns the objective case in English, and, if translated into Latin, would govern 

(1.) " Pand is easier Rnd salt is easier, and a mags of iron is easier/' &o. 






SYNTAX. 



litf 



the ablative case, it is manifest, that the clauses following with, in the pieeeding 
sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They cannot be at 
the same time in the objective and the nominative cases. The following sen- 
tence appears to be un exception able, and may serve to explain the others ; 
11 The lords and commons are essential branches of the British constitution : 
the king, with ihem, forms an excellent frame of government. ,; * 

" The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle/ 7 In this sen- 
tence, what is the nominative ca?e to compose ? Should the verb, then, be 
singular or plural ? What difficulty is mentioned in the beginning of this 
Note 1 



2. 



" Good order in our affairs, not 
mean savings, produce great 
profits." 

" The following treatise, together 
with those that accompany it, 
were written many years ago, 
for my own private satisfac- 
tion." 

" That great senator, in concert 
with several other eminent 
persons, were the projectors 
(1.) of the revolution." 

" The religion of these people, as 
well as their customs and 
manners, were strangely mis- 
represented." 

" Virtue, joined to knowledge and 
wealth, confer great influ- 
ence and respectability. But 
knowledge, with wealth unit- 
ed, if virtue is wanting, have 



a very limited influence, and 
are often despised." 

" That superficial scholar and 
critic, like some renowned 
critics of our own, have (2.) 
furnished most decisive proofs 
that they (3.) knew not the 
characters of trie Hebrew lan- 
guage." 

" The buildings of the institution 
have been enlarged ; the ex 
pense of which, added (4.) 
to the increased price of pro- 
visions, render it necessary 
to advance the terms of ad- 
mission." 

" One, added to nineteen, make 
twenty." 

" What (5.) black despair, what 
horror, fills his mind !" 



3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a cop- 
ulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronouns agree 
with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and the first of 
both ; as, " James, and thou, and I, are attached to our country f u Thou 
and he shared it between you." 

" James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country. 7 ' What is wrong in 
this example ? In what particular, wrong 1 What correction should be 
made 1 Why ? u Thou and he shared it between him. 77 Will you correct 
this example ? Why use xjou instead of him ? Will you repeat the Note 1 



3. 



" Thou, and the gardener, and 
the huntsman, most share 
the blame of this business 
amongst them.'" 



u My sister and I, as well as my 
brother, are daily employed 
in their respective occupa- 
tions." 



* Though the construction will not. admit of a plural verb, the sentence would 
certainly stand better thus : " The king, the lords, and the commons, form an 
excellent constitution. " 

(] .) Rule XV. 613. (2.) 632. Excoption 1. (3.) « he knew." 

(4.) Rule Xfir. 557. (5.) 434. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XXXII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary 
to that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the 
verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding 
terms taken separately, it must be in the singular 
number ; as, " Ignorance or negligence has caused 
this mistake ;" " John, James, or Joseph^ intends 
to accompany me ;" " There is, in many minds, 
neither knowledge nor understanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man may see 
r metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a description 3" 
'• read U.' 7 u Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood j" " was 
yet." u It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry 
in them robbery cr murder 5" " does not carry in it." a Death, or some worse 
misfortune, soon divide them 5" it ought to be, " divides. 7 ' 

11 Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood." What is wrong in 
this example 1 Why ? Will you correct it ? What is the Rule for this cor- 
rection ? 

" Man's happiness or misery are, " When sickness, infirmity, or 

in a great measure, put into reverse of fortune affect us, 

his own hands." the sincerity of friendship is 

H Man is not such a machine as a proved." 

clock or a watch, which move " Let (1.) it be remembered, (2.) 

merely as they are moved." that (3.) it is not the uttering 

u Despise no infirmity of mind or or the hearing of certain 

body, nor any condition of words, that constitute the 

life ; for they are, perhaps, to worship of the Almighty." 

be your own lot." " A tart reply, a proneness to re- 

11 Speaking impatiently to ser- buke, or a captious and con- 

vants, or anything that be- tradictious spirit, are capable 

trays inattention or ill-humor, of imbittering (4.) domestic 

are certainly criminal." life, (5.) and of setting friends 

" There are many faults in spell- at variance." 
ing, which neither analogy 
nor pronunciation justify." 

1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons, are 
disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is placed 
nearest to it ; as, u I or thou art to blame 5" u Thou or I am in fault ; ;; " I. 
thou, or he, is the author of it ;' ; " George or I am the person v But it woula 
be bettor to say, " Either I am to blame, or thou art," &c. 

" 1 or thou am to blame." How should this be altered ? What is the Rule 
for it ? 

1. 
" Either (6.) thou or I art greatly " I or thou am the person (7.) 
mistaken, in our judgment on who must undertake the busi- 

chis subject." ness proposed." 

(1.) Imperative mood, agreeing with thov. or you understood, I>y Rule VT, 
&.) Infinitive, 4*tf. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) Rule X. (5.) Rulo XFV. 560 

(6.) 059 (7.) Rule XV. 613. 






SYNTAX. 129 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a 
plural one, the verb is made to agree with the inural noun and pronoun j as, 
" Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to himj" " I or they were offended 
by it." But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently 
be done, should be placed next to the verb. 

" I or they was offended." What is wrong in this example ? What is the 
Rule for the correction ? 

2. 

" Both (1.) of the scholars, or one " Whether one person or mor. 

of them at least, was present was concerned in the busi- 

at the transaction.' 1 ness, does not appear." 

1 Some parts of the ship and cargo "The cares of this life, or the 

were recovered} but neither deceitfulness of riches, has 

(2.) the sailors nor the cap- choked the seeds of virtue in 

tain was saved.'' many a promising (3.) mind." 

NOTE XVI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE IV. 

A verb in the plural will agree with a collective noun 
in the singular, when a part only of the individuals 
are meant; as, " The council were divided in their 
sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of 
unity, the verb should be singular ; as, "The council 
was composed wholly of farmers." 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea 
of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to I he mind the idea of the 
whole, as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the 
latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The peasant- 
ry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It would 
be better to say, u The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use," 
&c, because the idea, in both these cases, is that of a number. On the con- 
trary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which nouns of num 
ber have verbs plural, because the ideas the}- represent seem not to be suffi- 
ciently divided in the mind : " The court of Rome vjere not without solicitude." 
"The house of commons were of small weight." " The house of lords were 
so much influenced by these reasons." " Stephen's party were entirely broken 
up by the captivity of their leader." " An army of twenty-four thousand were 
assembled." " What reason liave the church of Rome for proceeding in this 
manner ?" u There is indeed no constitution so tame and careless of their 
own defence."—-" All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin- 
gers, but his follies and vices arc innumerable." Is not mankind, in this place, 
a noun of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to be in the 
plural number, their ? 

" The peasantry goes barefoot," &c, What correction is necessary in this 
example 1 Why ? 

"The people rejoices in that " The court have just ended, after 

whieh should give it sor- having sat through the trial 

row." of a very long cause." 

" The flock, and not the fleece, " The crowd were so grea , that 

are, or ought to be, the oh- the judges with difficult} nade 

jects of the shepherd's care." their way through them 

(1.) 407. (2.) Conjunction when followed by nor. (3.) Rule XIII. 



130 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



" The corporation of York consist 
of a mayor, aldermen, and a 
common council." 

" The British parliament are com- 
posed of king, lords and com- 
mons." 

" When the nation complain, the 
rulers should listen to their 
voice." 

" In the days of youth, the mul- 
titude eagerly pursues pleas- 
ure as its chief good." 

" The church have no power to 
inflict corporal punishment." 

4i The fleet were seen sailing (1.) 
up the channel." 

1 The regiment consist of a thou- 
sand (2.) men." 

" The meeting have established 
several salutary regulations." 

" The council was not unanimous, 
and it separated without com- 
ing (3.) to any determina- 
tion." 

" The fleet is all arrived and 
moored (4.) in safety." 



This people draweth near to me 
with their mouth, and honor' 
eth me with their lips, but 
their heart is far from me." 

The committee was divided in 
its sentiments, and it has re- 
ferred the business to the gen- 
eral meeting." 

The committee were very full 
when this point w T as decided ; 
and their judgment has not 
been called in question." 

Why (6.) do this generation 
wish for greater evidence, 
when so much (5.) is already 
given?" 

The remnant of the people were 
persecuted with great severi- 

fy." 

Never were any people so (6.) 
much (6.) infatuated (7.) as 
the Jewish nation." 

The shoal of herrings were of 
an immense extent.'' 

No society are chargeable with 
the disapproved (b.) miscon- 
duct of particular members." 



HTJLE V. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand, in gender, number and person. 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which may 
he sufficient to put the learner on his guard. " Each of the sexes should keep 
within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages of 
their particular districts :" better thus j " The sexes should keep within their 
particular bounds," &c. " Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be 
fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?" u on his entrance," and " that 
he shall." " One should not think too favorably of ourselves ;" "of one's 
selj. 1 " He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles 5" " who 
poisoned. 7 ' 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either expressed 
*r implied ; as, " Who is fatal to others, is so to himself j" that is, " the vian 
joho is fatal to others. 77 

Who, which, what, and the relative tliat, though in the objective case, are 
tlways placed before the verb 5 as are also their compounds, whoever, whoso- 
tver, &c. j as, " He whom ye seek j" " This is what, or the thing which, or 
*hat you want ;" '•' Whomsoever you please to appoint. 77 

What is sometimes applied in a manner which appears to be exceptionable j 
as, " AH fevers, except what are called nervous, 77 &.c. It would at least be 
better to say, " except those which are called nervous. 77 

u One should not think too favorably of ourselves. 77 How should this sen- 
tence be altered ? What is the Rule for it ? Are the relatives placed before 
or after the verb ? 



(1.) Rule XIII. (2.) Note I. 405. 

(6.) Adverb. (7.) " were infatuated." 



3.) 561. (4.) Rule XI. 
8.) Rule XIII. 



(5.) 673. 



SYNTAX. 



131 



' The exercise of reason appears 
as (1.) little (2.) in these 
sportsmen, as in the beasts 
whom they sometimes hunt, 
and by whom they are some- 
times hunted," 

" They which seek Wisdom will 
certainly find her." 

" The male amongst birds seems 
to discover no beauty, but in 
the color of its species." 

" Take handfuls of ashes of the 
furnace, and let Moses 
sprinkle it towards heaven, 
in the sight of Pharaoh ; and 
it shall become small dust." 

' Rebecca took goodly raiment, 
which were with her in the 
house, and put them upon 
Jacob." 

" The wheel killed another man, 
which is the sixth vihich have 
lost their lives by this means." 

j 1 The fair sex, whose task is 
not to mingle in the labors of 
public life, has its own part 
assigned it to act." 

" The Hercules man-of-war found- 
ered at sea ; she overset, and 
lost most (3.) of her men." 

" The mind of man cannot be long 
without some food to nourish 
the activity of his thoughts." 



" What is the reason that our lan- 
guage is less refined than 
those of Italy, Spain, or 
France ?" 

" I do not think any one should 
incur censure for being (4.) 
tender (5.) of their reputa- 
tion." 

" Thou who hast been a witness 
(6.) of the fact, can give an 
account of it." 

" In religious concerns, or what 
(7.) is conceived to be such, 
(8.) every man must stand or 
fall by the decision of the 
great Judo;e." 

" Something Tike (9.) what (10.) 
have been here premised, are 
the conjectures of Dryden." 

"Thou great First Cause, (11.) 
least understood ! (12.) 
Who all my sense confined , (13.) 

To know but this, that thou art 
good, 
And that myself (11.) am blind : 

Yet gave (14.) me in this dark 
estate o&c 

" What (6.) art thou, (11.) speak, 
that, (15.) on designs un- 
known, (16.) 

While others sleep, thus range 
(17.) the camp alone?" 



1. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of the noun, are not 
employed in the same part of a sentence as the noun which they represent ; 
for it would be improper to say, " The king he is just -," " I saw her the 
queen ;''" " The men they were there ;" " Many words theij darken speech j ,; 
f My hanks tliey are furnished with bees." These personals are superfluous, 
as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where the 
principal word is present. The nominative case they, in the following sen- 
tence, is also superfluous : " Who, instead of going - about doing good, they arc 
perpetually intent upon doing mischief. 77 

" The king he is just. 77 Will you correct this sentence, and tell why it is 
wrong '? 

I' Whoever (18.) entertains such often choke the growth of 

an opinion, he judges errone- virtue." 

ously." " Disappointments and afflictions, 

" The cares of this world, they however disagreeable, they 

often improve us." 

2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things ; 
but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal ad- 



(1.) Rule IX. (2.) Adverb. (3.) 676. 

(6.) Rule XV. (7.) " t/wse which." 437. 

(9.) Rule IV. (10.) Rule VI. and X. Note XVII 
XIII. (13.) " conjinedst." (14.) 

(16 ) Rule XIII. (17.^1 " dost range." 



(4.)561> (5. x ,RuIeIV. 

(8.) "such concerns," Rule IV 

(IT.) Rule XV. (12.) Utile 

gnvestJ 1 (-5.) Conjunction 

(13.) " He who.' 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

jective same, it is generally used in preference to who or which ; as, " Charles 
XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever 
saw 3" " Catiline's followers were the most profligate that could be found in 
any city f' f " He is the same man tliat we saw before. 77 There are cases 
wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as applied to per- 
sons : as, first, after who, the interrogative ; " Who, tliat has any sense of reli- 
gion, would have argued thus ? 77 Secondly, when persons make but a part of 
the antecedent 5 " The woman, and the estate, that became his portion, were 
too much for his moderation. 77 In neither of these examples could any other 
relative have been used. 

To what is the pronoun that applied ? and when is it used in preference to 
who or which ? (416. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.) Give an example. 

2. 

" Moses was the meekest man " They are the same persons loho 

whom we read of in the Old assisted us yesterday." 

Testament." " The men and things which he 

" Humility is one of the most has studied, have not improv- 

amiable virtues which we can ed his morals." 
possess." 

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are elegantly divided 
by the interposition of the corresponding substantives : thus, " On whichsoever 
side the king cast his eyes, 7 ' would have sounded better, if written, " On which 
side soever, 77 &c. 

Will you give an example in which the compound pronoun whichsoever may 
be divided with propriety ? 

3. 
1 Howsoever beautiful they ap- " On whichsoever side they are 
pear, they have no real mer- contemplated, they appear to 

it." advantage." 

1 In whatsoever light we view " However much he might de- 
him, his conduct will bear in- spise the maxims of the king's 

spection." administration, he kept a total 

silence on that subject." 
/ 

4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case of the 
personal pronouns, in the place of these and those; as, " Give me them books, 77 
instead of " those books. 77 We may "sometimes find this fault even in writing 5 
as, " Observe them three there. 77 We also frequently meet with those instead 
of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no particular refer- 
ence to an antecedent 5 as, " Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy 5" 
" They that, or they who sow in tears. 77 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pronoun or a de- 
monstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. " We are not unacquaint- 
ed with the calumny of them [or those] who openly make use of the warmest 
professions. 77 

" Give me them books. 77 Why is this sentence incorrect ? 

4. 

u Which of them two persons has fer injuries, than those (2.) 

most distinguished himself?" that are most (3.) forward in 

" None (1.) more impatiently suf- doing (4.) them. (5.) 

5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and some- 
times we find it in this sense in writing 5 " They will never believe but what I 
have been entirely to blame. 77 " I am not satisfied but what, 77 &c, instead of 
" but that.'' 1 The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used 
improperly ; u These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat 

fl.) Rule VI. (2.) Note 1 405 (3.) 677. (4.) 561. (5.) Rule XIV. 



SYNTAX. 133 

an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, " In somewhat ef." The mean- 
ing is, " in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary." 

Will you give an example of the improper use of what instead oftJiat ? 

5. 

' He would not be persuaded but " These commendations of his 
what (1 .) I was greatly in children appear to have been 

fault." made in somewhat (2.) an in- 

judicious manner . ' ' 

6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, that there 
is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper names of 
persons, or the general terms man, woman, &c. A term which only implies 
the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will 
hardly authorize the use of it 5 as, u That the faction in England who most 
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions." " That faction which," would 
have been better 5 and the same remark will serve for the following examples : 
u France, who was in alliance with Sweden." " The court who," &c. u The 
cavalry who," &c. " The cities who aspired at liberty." " That party 
among us who," &-c. " The family whom they consider as usurpers." 

In some cases, it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is properly applied 
or not 5 as, " The number of substantial inhabitants with who?n some cities 
abound." For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in 
many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the company whom he most 
affected could cure him of the melancholy under which he labored." The 
word acquaintance may have the same construction. 

How is the relative who used ? 

6. 

" He instructed and fed the " He was the ablest minister 

crowds who (3.) surrounded which James ever possessed." 

him." " The court, who gives currency 

" Sidney was one .of the wisest to manners, ought to be ex- 

and most active governors, emplary." (4.) 

which Ireland had enjoyed " I am happy in the friend which 

for several years." I have long proved." 

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that tenn gives us 
the idea of reason and reflection ; and, therefore, the application of the person 
al relative who, hi this case, seems to be harsh : " A child who." It is still 
more improperly applied to animals : " A lake frequented by that fowl 
whojn nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 

ODo we sav, " A child who," or u A child which" ? Will you repeat 
the Note for "this ? 

7. 
" The child whom we have just " He is like (4.) a beast (5.) of 

seen, is wholesomely fed, and P re y? who destroys without 

not injured by bandages or pity." 

clothing." 

3. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does 
not refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. " It is 
no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, 
who was but another name for prudence and economy." Better thus : 
" whose name was but another word for prudence," &c. The word whose 
begins likewise to be restricted to persons 5 yet it is not done so general- 
ly, but that good writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. 
The construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the 
following instances : " Pleasure, whose nature," &c. " Call every produc- 
tion, whose parts and whose nature," &c. 

{].) ll that." Conjunction. (2.)-" in a manner which is, in some respects, inju- 

dicious." (3.) " that." (1.) Rule IV. (5.) Rulo X. Note XVII 
12 M 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect 
to persons ; and that is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, 
or a particular person among- a number of others. We should then say, 
" W/uch of the two," or " Wliich of them is he or she V 

u The court of queen Elizabeth, who," &c. Will you correct this sentence, 
and give the Note for it 1 

8. 
1 Having once disgusted (1.) him, deceive and betray, should be 

he could never regain the fa- avoided as the poisonous ad- 

vor of Nero, who was indeed der." 

another name for cruelty." " Who of those men came to his 

' Flattery, whose nature (2.) is to assistance ?" 

9. As tiie pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes find 
an ambiguity in the use of it 3 as, when we say, " The disciples of Christ, whom 
we imitate/' we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his disciples. 
The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon the 
proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily present its 
antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or am- 
biguity. 

What k remarked in this I^ote on the use of the relative pronouu ? 

9. 
" The king (3.) dismissed his min- " There are millions of people in 
ister without any inquiry ; the empire (4.) of China, 

who had never before com- whose support is derived al- 

mitted so unjust an action." most entirely from rice. ' 

10. It is and it was are often, after the manner of the French, used in a 
plural construction, and by some of our best writers ; as, " It is either a few 
great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious 
ring-leader ;" " It is they that are the real authors, though the soldiers are the 
actors of the revolution 5" " It was the heretics that first began to rail,' 7 &c. j 
" 'Tis these that early taint the female mind." This license m the construction 
of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however, been certainly abused 
in the following sentence, which is thereby made a very awkward one : " It is 
wonderful the very few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this 
practice." 

How are it is and it was often used ? Give an example in which they are 
used incorrectly in this sense. 

10. 
" It is remarkable his continual " It is indisputably true his as^r- 
endeavors to serve us, not- tion, though it is a paradox." 

withstanding our ingrati- (6.) 

tude." (5.) 

11. The interjections O ! oh! and ah! require the objective case of a pro- 
noun in the first person after them ; as, " O me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" but the 
nominative case in the second person 5 as, " O thou persecutor !" il O ye hyp- 
ocrites !" " O thou who dwellest," &c. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is fre- 
quently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the mas- 
culine or feminine gender ; as, " It was I ;" " It was the man or woman that 
did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood : thus we say, 
u As appears, as follows," for " As it appears, as it follows 5" and " May be," 
for " It may be." 



(1.) " Having disgusted." Rule XHT. (2.) " the nature of which." ( 3.)_" The 
ng, who had never," &cc 
nualf &c. ; ending the 
though paradoxical," &c. 



king, who had never," &cc. (4«) " There are in the empire," &c. (5.) " His con- 
tinual," &c. ; ending the sentence with, " are remarkable." (6.) " His assertion, 



SYNTAX. 135 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express, 
1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry ; as, " It happened on a sum 
ler's day ;" a Who is it that calls on me V 
2d. The state or conditiou of any person or thing 5 as, " How is it with 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event 3 or 
\y person considered merely as a cause ; as, " We heard her say it was not 
i 5" " The truth is, it was I that helped her." 

Why is it incorrect to say, " Oh I " 1 Why incorrect to say, " Oh thee" ? 

11. 

Ah ! unhappy thee, who art " Oh ! happy we, surrounded 
deaf to the calls of duty and with so many blessings." 

of honor." 



RULE XXIV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when 
no nominative case comes between it and the verb ; 
as, " The master who taught us ;" " The trees which 
are planted." 

When a nominative case comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its 
own member of the sentence ; as, " He who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, whose 1 am, and whom 
I serve, is eternal." 

In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a different 
office. In the first member, it marks the agent ; in the second, it submits to 
the government of the preposition 3 in the third, it represents the possessor j 
and in the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must be in the three 
different cases, correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to differ- 
ent#verbs, the relative is the nominative tc the former, and the antecedent tc 
the latter verb 3 as, " True philosophy, which is the ornament of our nature, 
consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great 
talents and extensive knowledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of 
the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part : u Kow can we 
avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved 
themselves our real friends ?" " These are the men whom, you might sup- 
pose, were the authors of the work." " If you were here, you would find three 
or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably." In all these 
places, it should be who, instead of ichom. The two latter sentences contain 
a nominative between the relative and the verb; and, therefore, seem to 
contravene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is not the nominative 
of the verb with which the relative is connected. — The remaining examples re- 
fer to the second part of the rule : u Men of fine talents are not always the 
persons who we should esteem." u The persons who you dispute with are 
precisely of your opinion." " Our tutors are our benefactors who we owe 
obedience to, and who we ought to love." In these sentences, whom should 
be used instead of who. 

'* These are the men whom, you might suppose, were," &c Will you cor 
rect this example, and give the rule for it ? 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" We are dependent on each " They who have labored to make 
others' assistance : whom is us wise and good, are the per- 

there that can subsist by him- sons who we ought to love 

self?" and respect, and who we 

" If he will not hear his best ought to be grateful to." 

friend, whom shall be sent to " The persons, who conscience 
admonish him r" and virtue support, may smile 

1 They who (1.) much is given at the caprices of fortune." 

to, will have much (2.) to an- " From the character of those 
swer for." (3.) who you associate with, youi 

6 It is not to be expected that own will be estimated." 

they, whom in early life have " That (4.) is the student who 1 
been dark and deceitful, should gave the book to, and whom, 

afterwards become £xir and I am persuaded, deserves it." 

ingenuous." 

1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun or pro 
noma containing" the answer, must be in the same case as that which contains 
the question ; as, " Whose books are these V u They are John's." " Wlio 
gave them to him 1" " We." " Ofivhom did you buy them 1" " Of a book- 
seller 5 him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there V' 
u Both him and the shopman. " The learner will readily comprehend this 
rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to 
express the answers at large, we should say, " They are John's books -" " We 

fave thern to him -" " We bought them of him who lives/' &c. ; " We Saw 
oth him and the shopman." As the relative pronoun, when used interroga 
tively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the answer to the 
question ; that word or phrase may properly be termed the subsequent to the in- 
terrogative. 

" Of whom did you buy them 1" " Of a bookseller ; he who lit e*/ &c. 
What is wrong :n this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the 
Note for it ? 

1. 
" Of whom were the articles " Who was the money paid to ? " 

bought?" "Of a mercer; he "To the mercer and hia 

(5.) who resides near (6.) the clerk." 

mansion-house." "Who counted it?" "Both the 

"Was any person besides (6.) the clerk and him." 

mercer present ?" " Yes, both 

him and his clerk." 

HULE XXV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE VII. 

When the relative is 'preceded by two nominatives oj 
different persons, the relative and verb may agree in 
person with either, according to the sense ; as, " I am 
the man who command you ;" or, " I am the man 
who commands you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning 
rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, " I, who command 
you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring 
the relative to different antecedents, will be more evident to the learner in the 

(l.)"fc>wtow»." (2.) 673. (3.) 596. (4.) Note 1 405 

(5) Rule XV. (6) 47 



SYNTAX. 137 

following sentences : " I am the general who gives the oraers to-day f* ''lam 
the general, who give the orders to-day ; 7; that is, " I, who give the orders to- 
day, am the general. 77 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either 
of the preceding nominatives ; that agreement must be preserved throughout 
the sentence 5 as in the following instance : "lam the Lord, that makelh all 
things 3 that stretclieth forth the heavens alone. 77 Jsa. xliv. 24. Thus far is 
consistent : the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees 
with the relative in the third person : " I am tJie Lord, which Lord, or he, that 
mafceth all things. 77 If / were made the antecedent, the relative and verb 
should agree with it in the first person 5 as, " / am "the Lord, that make all 
things ; thai stretch forth the heavens alone. 77 But should it follow, " thai 
spreadeth abroad the earth by myself, 77 there would arise a confusion of per- 
sons, and a manifest solecism. 

" I am the man who command you. 77 " I am the man who commands you. 77 
What is the nominative to command in the first sentence 1 What to commands 
in the second ? Rule for each ? Why is the verb of a different person in 
different sentences ? 

1 1 acknowledge that (1.) I am "I perceive that thou art a pupil 

the teacher, (5.) who adopt who possesses bright parts, 

that sentiment, and maintains but who hast cultivated them 

the propriety of such meas- but (3.) little." (4.) 

ures." (2.) " Thou art he (5.) who breathest 

p Thou art a friend (5.) that hast on the earth with the breath 

often relieved me, and that of spring, and who coveretb 

has not deserted me now, in it with verdure and beauty." 

the time of peculiar need." " I am the Lord (5.) thy God, (5.) 

•* I am the man who approves of who teacheth thee to profit, 

wholesome discipline, and and who lead thee by the way 

who recommend it to others ; thou shouldst go." 

but I am not a person who " Thou art the Lord who did 

promotes useless severity, or choose Abraham, and brought- 

who object to mild and gen- est him forth (4.) out of (6.) 

erous treatment " Ur of the Chaldees " 

RULE IV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE VIII. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 

Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree 
in number with the nouns to which they belong. 
1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rale are here exhibited : " I have not 
travelled th;s twenty years ;" " these twenty." " I am not recommending 
these kind of suffering's 5" " this kind." " Those set of books was a valuable 
present f " that set. 7 ' 

" I have not travelled this twenty years.' 7 How should this be altered ? 
Why? 
" These kind of indulgences soft- playing (9.) this two hours." 

en and injure the mind." (10-) 

"Instead (7.) of improving (8.) " Those sort of favors did real in- 
yourselves, you have been jury, under the appearance of 

kindness." 

(].) 652. (2.) " adopts and maintains," or " adopt and maintain." (3.) 654 

) Adverb. (5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. (7.) 247. (8.) 561. (9.) Rule 
IIT. (10.) Rule XXII. 646. 

12 * 



£ 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The chasm made (1.) by the " How many a sorrow (5.) should 
earthquake was twenty foot we avoid, if we were not in- 

% (2.) broad, (3.) and one hun- dustrious to make them !" 

dred fathom (4.) in depth." " He saw one or more persons (6.) 

enter (7.) the garden." 

1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrase "by this 
means" u by that means/ 7 are used by our best and most correct writers 5 
namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, &c.* They are, 
indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, if not 
affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, " by this mean ;" " by that 
mean ;" " it was by a mean ;" although it is more agreeable to the general 
analogy of the language. " The word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class 
of words, which do not change their termination on account of number 3 for it 
is. used alike in both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sentences 
* Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country 3 and 
with this amends he was content." " Peace of mind is an honorable amends 
for the sacrifices of interest." " In return, he received the thanks of his em- 

J)loyers, and the present of a large estate : these were ample amends for all his 
abors." " We have described the rewards of vice : the good man's amends 
are of a different nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word means) 
had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived 
from the French a.mende, though now it is exclusively established in the plural 
form. If, therefore, it be alleged, that mean should be applied in the singular, 
because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of argument may 
be advanced in favor of the singular amende ; and the general analogy of the 
language may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, has the following remark on the 
subject before us : " No persons of taste will, I presume, venture so far to vio- 
ate tho present as age, and consequently to shock the ears of the generality of 
readers, as to say, ' By this mean, by that mean. 7 " 

(1.) Rule Xni. (2.) Note XVIII. 648. (3.) " chasm— broad." Rule IV. 

(4.) Rule IX. (5.) " many sorrows." (6.) " one person, or more than one. 1 

(7.) Rule XII. 

* " By this means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed with 
a long march." Bacon. 

" By this means one great restraint from doing evil would be taken away." " And 
this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." " By that means they have 
rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

" It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means securing 
the continuance of his goodness." " A good character, when established, should 
not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good." 

Atterbury. 

" By this means they are happy in each other." " Pie by that means preserves his 
superiority." Addison. 

" Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope 

" Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles. " 

Dean Swift. 

" There is no means of escaping the persecution." " Faith is not only a means of 
obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young. 

" He looked on money as a necessary rnea?is of maintaining and increasing power ' 

Lord Lyttleton's Henry II. 

"John was too much intimidated net to embrace every means afforded for his 
safety." Goldsmith. 

"Lest this" means should fail." " By means of ship-money, the late king," &c 
" The only means of securing a durable peace." Hume. 

" By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &c. 

Blackstone. 

" By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 

Dr. Robertson. 

" By this means they bear witness to each o4her." Burke. 

" By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." Dr. Blair. 

"A magazine, which has, by this means, contained, * &c. " Birds, in general,_ 
procure their food bv means of their hmk." On- Paley. 



SYNTAX. 139 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the singular 
lumber. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point 5 but rather 
lubiously, as if they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities as 
well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against the applica- 
tion of this word to the singular number, appears from their own language : 
u Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become members of 
)ther sentences by means of some additional connection?' — Dr. Lowth 's In- 
-odnction to English Grammar. 

" There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant 
but by means of something already known." — Dr. Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes no use, as 
far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean ; though there are several 
instances to be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and connection con- 
tended for. " By tlds means thou shalt have no portion on this side the river." 
Ezra iv. 16. " That by means of death," &c. Heb. ix. 15. It will scarcely 
be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes did not accurately un- 
derstand the English language 3 or that they would have admitted one form of 
this word, and rejected the other, had not their determination been conforma- 
ble to the best usage. An attempt, therefore, to recover an old word, so Jong 
since disused by the most correct writers, seems not likely to be successful 5 
especially as the rejection of it is not attended with any inconvenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of 
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the stand- 
ard of language 5 especially if, in particular instances, this practice continue 
after objection and due consideration. Every connection and application of 
words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to 
respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 



Si volet ustis 



u Quern penes arbitHum est, et jus, et norma loquendi." Hor. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the 
general analogy of the language than those before mentioned, are to be con 
sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following : 
" None of them are varied to express the gender j" and yet none originally 
signified no one. u He himself shall do the work :" here, what was at first 
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. 
" You have behaved yourselves well :" in this example, the word you is put in 
the nominative case plural, with strict propriety j though formerly it was con 
fined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nominative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, it is 
the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously 
opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes 
of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and, 
in some degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided ; but he 
cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner, 
in discovering and respecting the true standard and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's 
province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground of derivation, 
analogy, and propriety : and his reasonings may refine and improve the lan- 
guage : but when authority speaks out, and decides the point, it were perpetu- 
ally to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies, then, 
under the limitation mentioned, become the law, as ( 'early as the plainest 
analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the word 
mean in the old form has a very uncouth appearance . "By the mean of ad- 
versity we are often instructed.' 7 " He preserved his health by mean of exer- 
cise." il Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency." They should 
be, " By means of adversity," &c. ; " By means of exercise," &c. 5 rt Vr 
ty is one means' 1 &c. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1.) mean in the singu- 
lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, &c; 

H .) Nouns ni-0 sometimes railed sub.itanHiUis 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, " This is a mean between the two extremes." But in the sense of instru- 
mentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost every 
writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when they refer to what is 
singular 5 these means and those means, when they respect plurals ; as, u He 
lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health 5" " The scholars 
were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors 5 and by these means 
acquired knowledge." 

Wc have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to re- 
flect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard of propriety 
in the use of language. 

In what number is the word means used ? What does Dr. Priestley remark 
concerning the use of this word ? What other word is used in this manner ? 
What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the use of the phrase, " By this 
mean" 1 Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson approve of the use of means in the 
singular number 1 Do good writers make use of the substantive (1.) mean in 
the singular number ? Give an example. When should "This means 7 ' and 
" That means" be used ? When " These means" and " Those means" 1 

1. 

" Charles was extravagant, and " This person embraced every op 

by this mean became poor portunity to display his tal- 

and despicable." ents ; and by these means 

" It was by that ungenerous mean rendered himself ridiculous." 

that (2.) he obtained his end." "Joseph was industrious, frugal 

" Industry is the mean of obtain- and discreet ; and by this 

ing competency." means obtained property and 

" Though a promising measure, it reputation." 
is a mean which I cannot 
adopt." 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is 
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in refer- 
ence to the former, and this, in reference to the latter : as, u Self-love, which 
is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man would 
be inactive j and but for this, he would be active to no end." 

How are the pronouns that and this used ? 

2. 

" Religion raises men above them- upon the earth in those than 

selves ; irreligion sinks them in these ; because there is a 

beneath the brutes : that (3.) much slower evaporation." 
binds them down (4.) to a " Rex and Tyrannus are of very 

poor, pitiable speck of perish- different characters. The one 

able earth ; this opens for (3.) rules his people by laws 

them a prospect to the skies." to which they consent; the 

" More rain falls in the first two other, (5.) by his absolute will 

summer months, than in the and power: this is called free 

first two winter ones ; but it dom ; that (5.) tyranny." 
makes a much greater show 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, agree with the 
nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only ; as, u The king 
of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne 5" 
" Every tree is known by its fruit ;" unless the plural noun convey a col 
lective idea ; as. " Every six months 5" " Every hundred years." The fol- 
lowing phrases are exceptionable : " Let each esteem others better than 
themselves ," it ought to be, " himself. 77 " The language should be both 
perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these two qualities are 
wanting, the language is imperfect ;" it should be, " is wanting." " Every 

(1.) Note 1, p. 139. (3. N 652. (3.) 407. Rule VI. (4.) Advorb 

(5.) Rule XI. 407. 



SYNTAX. 141 

one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment ;" 
" bears a regular . date, and contains." "Every town and village were 
burned 3 every grove and every tree were cut down 3" u was burned, and 
was cut down." 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each ; as, " The kin£ of Is- 
rael, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne j" 
"Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer." 
Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately; eitfier properly 
signifies only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively. 

" The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of 
them on their throne." Will you correct this, and give the rule for it ? 

3. 

r Each of them, in their (1.) turn, is productive of much (7.) in- 

rcceive the benefits to which ward joy or bitterness." 

they are entitled/' " Whatever (8.) he undertakes, 

" My counsel to each of you is, either (9.) his pride or his 

that you (2.) should make it folly disgust us." 

your endeavor to come to a " Every man and every woman 

friendly agreement." were numbered." 

I By discussing what (3.) relates " Neither of those men seem to 

to each particular, in their have any idea that their opin- 

order, we shall better under- ions may be ill founded." 

stand the subject." " When benignity and gentleness 

u Every person, whatever (4.) be reign within, (7.) we are al- 

their station, (5.) are bound ways (7.) least (7.) in hazard 

by the duties of morality and from without: (10.) every per- 

religion." son and every occurrence are 

' Every leaf, every twig, (6.) beheld in the most favorable 

every drop of water, teem light." 

with life." " On either side of the river was 

' Every man's heart and temper there the tree of life." 

4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs ; as, " Indiffer- 
ent honest 5 excellent well 5 miserable poor 5" instead of " Indifferently hon- 
est ; excellently well ; miserably poor." a He behaved himself conformable 
to that great example ;" " conformably." " Endeavor to live hereafter suita- 
ble to a person in thy station ;" " suitably." " I can never think so very mean 
of him 3" " meanly." " He describes this river agreeable to the common read- 
m &S U 0L S reea ^y-' 7 " Agreeable to my promise, I now write 3" " agreeably." 
"Thy exceeding great reward 5" when united to an adjective, or adverb not 
ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it 3 as, " exceedingly dread- 
ful, exceedingly great 3" " exceedingly well, exceedingly more active :" but 
when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly is ' 
omitted ; as, " Some men think exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forci- 
bly 3" " She appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely." — " He acted in 
this business bolder than was expected." " They behaved the noblest, because 
they were disinterested." They should have been, " more boldly, most nobly." 
The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied 5 as, " He was such an extrav- 
agant young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years 5" it should 
be, " so extravagant a young man." " I never before saw such large trees 3" 
" saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the 
word such is properly applied 3 as, " Such a temper is seldom found :" but 
when degree is signified, we use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom 
found." 9 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives 5 as, " The tutor ad- 
Iressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence 3" "suitable. 79 

11.) « his." (2.) " he." (3.) 437. (4.) Rule XV. (5.) Rule VI 

6.) Rule XI. (7.) Adverb. (8.) Rule V1T1 (9.) 659. ^.0.) "from 

mthout " i e. " externally " 589. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed f "solitary. 79 
"He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion 5" 
a agreeable." " The study of syntax should be previously to that of punctua- 
tion)" "previous." 

Young; persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particular 
constructions, whether an adjective, or an adverb, ought to be used. A few 
observations on this point, may serve to inform their judgment, and direct their 
determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the adjective 
and the adverb 5 and consider whether, in the case in question, quality or man 
ner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper j in the latter, an 
adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction, and prove useful 
on other occasions. 

" She looks cold — She looks coldly on him." 
" He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him." 
" He became sincere and virtuous— He became sincerely virtuous." 
u She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense." 
" Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly." 
" Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in reputa- 
tion." 

u They now appear happy— They now appear happily in earnest." 
u The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point." 

The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word im- 
mediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb j and conse- 
quently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying the 
sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected witli an ad- 
jective. The following sentences elucidate these observations : " This is 
agreeable to our interest." " That behavior was Kot suitable to his station." 
"Rules should be conformable to sense." "The rose smells [is] sweet." 
" How sweet the hay smells [is] !" " How delightful the country appears 
[is] !" " How pleasant the fields look [are] !" " The clouds look [are] dark." 
" How black the sky looked [was] !" " 1 ie apple tastes [is] sour !" " How 
bitter the plums tasted [were] !" u He feels [is] happy." In all these sen- 
tences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tenses of the verb to be, 
for the other verbs. jBut in the following sentences we cannot do this : " The 
dog smells disagreeably." " George feels exquisitely." " How pleasantly 
she looks at us !" 

The directions contained in this Note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us 5 but 
we must not reject rules, because they are attended with exceptions. 

Why is " indifferent honest" an incorrect expression 1 Do we say, H ex- 
ceeding dreadful," and " exceeding great " ? What, then, do we use in the 
place of exceeding ? When, then, do we use exceedingly ? When exceeding ? 
" The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence." 
Why is this sentence wrong ? Correct it. How can we teif whether an ad- 
jective or an adverb ought to be used ? Which do we use, when quality is 
indicated ? Which, when manner is indicated ? Which does the verb to be 
generally require to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb 1 To illus- 
trate the distinct and proper use of both the adverb and adjective, I will give 
you some examples. Would you then say, " He is diligently and attentive 
ly," or '" diligent and attentive " ? " She will be happy," or " happily " ? 
" He looks cold," or " coldly" ? " She looks cold on him." Can we use is 
for looks, and make sense ? Would you, then, say, " She looks cold on him," 
or " coldly on him " ? " She lives freelv [is] from care" ? Why 1 " He lives 
free at another's expense'' ? " He feels warmly" ? " He feels warm the in- 
sult offered him" ? " He became sincerely and virtuously" ? " He became 
sincere virtuous" ? Why 1 " Harriet always appears neatly — She dresses 
neat" ? " Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He is grown gTeat in his 
reputation" 1 " They now appear happily— They now appear happy in 
earnest" ? " The statement seems exactly— The statement seems exact in 
point" 1 " How sweetly the hay smells !" 1 u How delightful the country 
appears !" 1 " How pleasant the fields look !" ? " The clouds look darkly" T 
u The apples taste sourly" ? 



SYNTAX. 



143 



1 She reads proper, writes very 
neat , and composes accurate." 

u He was extreme prodigal, and 
his property is now near ex- 
hausted." 

" They generally succeeded ; for 
they lived conformable to the 
rules of prudence." 

u We may reason very clear and 
exceeding strong, without 
knowing that there is such a 
thing as a syllogism." 

' He had many virtues, and was 
exceeding beloved." 

u The amputation was exceeding 
well performed, and saved the 
patient's life." 

" He came agreeable to his prom- 
ise, and conducted himself 
suitable to the occasion." 

" He speaks very fluent, reads 
excellent, but does not think 
very coherent." 

" He behaved himself submissive, 
and was exceeding careful 
not to give (1.) offence." 

" They rejected the advice, and 
conducted themselves exceed- 
ingly indiscreetly." 
He is a person of great abilities, 
and exceeding upright ; and 
is like to be a very useful 
member (2.) of the commu- 
nity." 



The conspiracy was the easier 
(3.) discovered, from its (4.) 
being known (5.) to many." 

Not being fully acquainted with 
the subject, he could affirm 
no stronger (6.) than he did." 

He was so deeply impressed 
with the subject, that few 
could speak nobler upon it." 

We may credit his testimony, 
for he says express, that he 
saw the transaction." 

Use a little wine for thy stom- 
ach's sake, and thine often 
(7.) infirmities." 

From these favorable begin- 
nings, we may hope for a 
soon (8.) and prosperous is- 
sue." 

He addressed several exhorta- 
tions to them suitably to their 
circumstances." 

Conformably to their vehe- 
mence of thought, was their 
vehemence of gesture." 

We should implant in the minds 
of youth such seeds and prin- 
ciples of piety and virtue, as 
(9.) are likely to take soonest 
and deepest root." 

Such (10.) an amiable disposi- 
tion will secure universal re- 
gard." 

Such distinguished virtues sel- 
dom occur." 



5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided 3 such as " a 
worser conduct 3" " on lesser hopes 3" " a more serener temper 3" " the most 
straitest sect 3" " a more superior work." They should be, a worse con- 
duct 5" " less hopes 5" " a more serene temper 5" " the straitest sect 5" " a su- 
perior work." 

" A worser conduct. 5 
for it ? 



Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule 
5. 



'Tis more easier to build two 
chimneys than to maintain 
one." 

The tongue is like (11.) a race- 
horse, (12.) which runs the 
faster (13.) the lesser weight 
it carries." 



" The pleasures of the under 
standing are more preferable 
than (14.) those of the imagi- 
nation, or of sense." 

" The nightingale sings : hers is 
the most sweetest voice m the 
grove." 



(1.) Rule XIT. (2.) Rule XV. (3.) " more easily." (4.) Rule I. 

(5.) ; ' being known" — participial noun. (6.) " not affirm more strongly." 

(7.) " thy frequent." (8.) " speedy." (9.) 656. (10.) «« A disposition 

to amiable," &c. See the Note, a few lines before the close. (11.) Rule IV 

12.1 Rule X.— Note XVII. 647. (13.) 590. (14.) "preferable to." 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The Most Highest hath created " The Supreme Being is the most 
us for his glory, and for our wisest, and most powerfullest, 

own happiness." and the most best of beings/ 

6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not 
properly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded ; such as 
chief, extreme, perfect, riglit, universal, supreme, &c. 5 which are sometimes 
improperly written chief est, extremist, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most 
supreme, &c. The following expressioiis are, therefore, improper : " He 
sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices." " The quarrel became so 
universal and national." "A method of attaining the rightest and greatest 
happiness." The phrases " so perfect," " so right," " so extreme," " so uni- 
versal," &c, are incorrect 5 because they imply that one thing is less perfect, 
less extreme, &,c, than another, which is not possible. 

Is it proper to say, " The most perfect work " ? Why not ? 

6. 

" Virtue confers the supremcst (1.) " His work is perfect; (4.) his 

dignity on man ; and should brother's, more perfect ; and 

be his chiefest desire." his father's, the most perfect 

" His assertion was more true (2.) of all." 

than that of his opponent ; " He gave the fullest and most 

nay, the words of the latter sincere proof of the truest 

were most untrue." (3.) friendship." 

7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of com- 
parison are applied and construed. The following are examples of wrong 
construction in this respect : " This noble nation hath, of all others, admit- 
ted fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here construed precisely as if 
it were the superlative. It should be, "This noble nation hath admitted 
fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly say, " This is the weak- 
er of the two," or, u the weakest of the two j" but the former is the regu- 
lar mode of expression, because there are only two things compared. " The 
vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." 
" He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of all others." 
Both these modes of expression are faulty : we should not say, " the best 
of any man," or " the best of any other man," for " the best of men." 
The sentences may be corrected by substituting the comparative in the 
room of the superlative : " The vice, &c, is what enters deeper into the 
soul than any other." "He celebrates, &c, as more perfect than any oth- 
er." It is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the expression 
grammatical : " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." 
" He celebrates, &c, as the most perfect of all churches." These sen 
tences contain other errors, against which it is proper to caution the learner. 
The words deeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have 
been more deeply, most deeply. The phrases more perfect and most perfect 
are improper 5 because perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. 
We may say, nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

In speaking of two persons, should we say, " The weaker of the two/' 
or " The weakest of the two " ? Why ? 

7. 
" A talent of this kind would, " He spoke with so much pro 
perhaps, prove the likeliest priety, that I understood him 

of any other (5.) to succeed." the best of all the others (6.) 

" He is the strongest of the two, xoho spoke on the subject." 

but not the wisest." " Eve was the fairest of all her 

daughters." 

(1.) " the supremest— supreme." (2.) " better founded." (3.) " not true." 

14.) "well executed—still belter—best. (5.) "all " (6.) " of all icho." 




SYNTAX. J 45 

8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substan- 
tives, even by words which modify their meaning, and make but one ser.so 
with them 3 as, " A large enough number, surely." It should be, " A number 
large enough." " The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one 
not very distant from them." 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive ; as, u A generous 
man 3" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it comes after the 
substantive, are the following : 

1st. When something depends upon the adjective 3 and when it gives abet- 
ter sound, especially in poetry 3 as, " A man generous to his enemies 5" " Feed 
me with food convenient for me 3" u A tree three feet thick ;" " A body of 
troops fifty thousand Strang ;" " The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt." 

2d. When the adjective is emphatical 3 as. "Alexander the Great;" 
u Lewis the Bold ;" " Goodness infinite ;" " Wisdom unsearchable." 

3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive } as, " A man just, 
wise, and charitable 3" " A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous." 

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb 5 as, (i A boy regularly 
studious 3" " A girl unaffectedly modest."* 

5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a sub- 

fol- 
?rtue 
inter 
view/' 

6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive 
placed after an active verb 3 as, " Vanity often renders its possessor despica- 
ble." In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the sub- 
stantive 3 as, " How despicable does vanity often render its possessor !" 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective 
before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it 3 as, " Great is the 
Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints 1" 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars 
comprehended under it. " Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Some- 
times a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding- particulars, is 
used in conjunction with this adjective 3 as, " Royalists, republicans, church- 
men; sectaries, courtiers, all parties, concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly asso- 
ciate with a singular noun 5 as, " Our desire, your intention, their resignation." 
This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than to those 
which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word j 
whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on 3 
as. " An old man 5 a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in- 
stances, put as if it were absolute 3 especially where the noun has been men 
tioned before, or easily understood, though not expressed 5 as, " I often sur 
vey iL" 

Is it correct to say, u A large enough number " ? How should it be alter 
ed ? What is the Note for it 1 Should the adjective be placed usually before 
or after the noun 1 

8. 

" He spoke in a distinct enough pair of gloves : he is the ser 

meJiner to be heard by the vantof an old rich (2.) man." 

whole assembly." " The two first (3.) in the row are 

f Thomas is equipped with a new eherry-tree3, the two others 

(1.) pair of shoes, and a new are pear-trees." 

(1.) " a pair of new shoes.'' 1 (2.) " rich old." (3 ) Note I.— Rule VI 
13 N 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RTTXiE II. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE IX. 

The indefinite, article, a or an, belongs to nouns of the 
singular number. 

BULE XII. 

The definite article, the, belongs to nouns of the singu- 
lar or plural numbers. 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly 
applied, according to their distinct nature j as, " Gold is corrupting 5 tlie sea 
is green 5 a lion is bold." 

It is the nature of both th§ articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of. 
A detenmnes it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain 
which 5 the determines which it is, or, if many, which they are. 

The following- passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a 
and the, and of the force of the substantive without any article : " Man was 
made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men 3 but a man will 
naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the men with whom he has 
the most frequent intercourse 5 and enter into a still closer union with the man 
whose temper and disposition suit best with his own." 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhibit 
a few instances : " And I persecuted this way unto the death." The apostle 
does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general : the definite 
article, therefore, is improperly used : it ought to be, " unto death," without 
any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide 3 7 ou into all truth }" 
that is, according to this translation, " into all truth whatsoever, into truth of 
all kinds 5"— -very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the 
original, " into all the truth 5" that is, " into all evangelical truth, all truth 
necessary for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be " the wheel," used 
as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. " The Al- 
mighty hath dven reason to a man to be a light unto him ," it should rather 
be, "" to man,- in general. "This day is salvation come to this house, for- 
asmuch as he also is the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, " a son of Abra- 
ham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use 
of the article, and the excellence of the English language in this respect ; 
which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the extent 
of signification of common names. 

What is the nature of the articles ? What does the article a determine 1 
What the article the ? 

" The fire, the air, the earth, and " (4.) Wisest and best men some 

the water, are four elements times commit errors." 

(1.) of the philosophers." " Beware of drunkenness : it im- 

" Reason was given to a man to pairs understanding ; waste? 

control his passions." an estate ; destroys a reputa- 

" We have within us an intelli- tion; consumes the body ; and 

gent principle, distinct from renders the (5.) man of the 

(2.) body and from matter." brightest parts the (5.) com- 

•• A man is the noblest work of mon jest (6.) of the meanest 

(3.) creation." clown." 

(I.) " Fire, air," &c. " the four," &c. (2.) " the body." (3/> "the 

creation." (4.) " The wisest." (5.) "a " (6.) Rule XV 



SYNTAX. 



147 



u He is a much better writer than 

a reader." 
u The king has conferred on him 

the title of a duke." 
" There are some evils of life 

which equally affect prince 

and people." 
u We must act our part with a 

constancy, though reward of 

our constancy be (1.) distant." 
" We are placed here under a trial 

of our virtue." 
" The virtues like his are not 

easily acquired. Such quali- 
ties honor the nature of a 

man." 

1 . A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis- 
sion of the article a. If I say, u He behaved with a little reverence/* my 
meaning" is positive. If I say ; " He behaved with iktle reverence," my mean- 
ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used in 
the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person j by the latter, I dis- 
praise him. For the sake of this distinction, winch is a very useful one, we 
may better bear the seeming impropriety of the articie a before nouns of num- 
ber. When I say, " There were few men with him/ 7 I speak diminutively, 
and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : whereas, when I say, " There 
were a few men with him/ 7 I evidently intend to make the most of them. 

What is the difference in meaning between the expressions a We behaved 
with a little reverence/ 7 and " We behaved with little reverence 77 ? 



" Purity has its seat in the heart, 
but extends its influence over 
so much of outward conduct, 
as to form the great and ma- 
terial part of a character." 

" The profligate man is seldom or 
never found to be the good 
husband, the good father, or 
the beneficent neighbor." 

" True charity h not the meteor 
which occasionally glares, but 
the luminary which, in its 
orderly and regular course, 
dispenses benignant iniiu- 
ence." 



u He has been much censured for 
conducting himself with a lit- 
tle attention to his business." 

u So bold a breach of order called 
for (2.) little severity in pun- 
ishing the offender." 

u His error was accompanied with 
so little eontrition and can- 
did acknowledgment, that he 
found a few person^ to inter- 
cede for him." 



" There were so many mitigating 
(3.) circumstances attending 
his misconduct, particularly 
that (4.) of his open confes- 
sion, that he found (5.) few 
friends who were disposed to 
interest themselves in his fa- 
vor." 

" As his misfortunes were the 
fruit of his ovn obstinacy, a 
few persons pitied him." 



2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of two 
words in the same construction ; though the French never fail to repeat it in 
this case. " There were many hours, both of tl»e night and da}', which he 
could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought. 77 It might have been *' of 
the night and of the day. 77 And, for the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the 
article in a series of epithets. " He hoped that this title would secure him an 
ample and an independent authority.' 7 

Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same const ruction ! 

2. 
u 1 he fear of shame, (6.) the de- * He was fired with desire of 



sire of approbation, prevent 
many bad actions." 
** In this business he was influ- 
enced by a just and (7.) gen- 
erous principle." 



doing something, though lie 
knew not yet, with distinct- 
ness, either end or means." 



(l.) 404 
*ule XIV. 



(2.) "a little." 
(5.) "a few." 359. 



(3.) 550. 



(4.) li that circwwwt«Ttce."Note I.— 



(6.) ''• and the." 



(/.) " a generous/ 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the 
articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a grave 
style. " At worst, time might be gained by this expedient. 7 '' " At the worst* 
would have been better in this place. u Give me here John Baptist's head." 
There would have been more dignity in saying, " John the Baptist's head f* 
or, " The head of John the Baptist." 

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by 
an epithet. " In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are 
surprised at not finding him the. great man." " I own I am often surprised that 
he should have treated so coldly a man so much t.he gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for the 
pronoun possessive 3 as, u He looks him full in tlie face j" that is, "in his 
face." " In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground $* 
that is, •'* their foreheads ." 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, 
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after 
the substantive. " Oi all the considerable governments among the Alps, a 
commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of 
those countries." " With such a specious title as that of blood, which, with 
the multitude, is always a claim the strongest, and the most easily compre- 
hended." " They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be re- 
placed." 

"At worst, time might be gained," &c What word may properly be 
inserted in the beginning of this sentence 1 What is the Note for it 1 

o 

" At worst I eould but incur a " At best, his gift was but a poor 
gentle reprimand." offering, when we consider 



his estate." 

RULE X. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE X. 



The possessive case is governed by the following noun 






When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there is 
no variation of case ; as, " George, king of Great Britain, elector of Hano- 
ver," &c. ; li Pcmpey contended with Caesar, the greatest % general of his 
time ;" " Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity*." Nouns thus 
circumstanced are said to be in apposition lo each other. The interposition 
of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction; as, " Pompey 
contended with C?esar, who was the greatest general of his time." Here the 
word general is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV., or Note 4, 
under Rule VIII. 

The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the 
possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be converted into the 
regular form of the possessive case. We can say, " the reward of virtue," 
and " virtue's reward ;" but though it is proper to say, " a crown of gold," 
we cannot convert the expression mto the possessive case, and say, u gold's 
crown." 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case ; as, 
" Every tree is known by its fruit;" " Goodness brings its reward;" "That 
desk is mine." 

The genitive ( 1 . ) its is often improperly used for 'tis or it is; as, " Its my 
book 5" instead of " It is my book.' 7 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be 
considered, not <*5 a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per- 
sonal pronoun : as, " Tliis composition is his. 77 " Whose book is that V 7 
' His. 77 If we used the noun itself, we should say, " This composition is 

(1.) Or possessive. 



SYNTAX. 149 

John's." " Whose book is that ?" a Eliza's." The position will be still more 
evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sentences 
must have a similar construction : " Is it Iter or his honor that is tarnished V' 
u It is not hers, but his." 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone, 
tiie latter one by which it is governed being understood } as, " i called at the 
Bookseller's," that is, "at the bookseller's shop." 

" Religion, the support of adversit3 r . adorns prosperity." What is said of 
the nouns religion, and support, in respect to each other ? When is the prep- 
osition of joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case ? Give an 
example. 

11 My ancestors virtue is not " A mothers tenderness, and a 

mine." (1.) fathers care are natures giils 

u His brothers offence will not for mans advantage." 

condemn him." " A mans manners' frequently in- 

" I will not destroy the city for fluence his fortune." 

ten sake." a Wisdoms precepts' form the 

" Nevertheless, Asa hU heart (2.) good mans interest and hap- 

was perfect with the Lord." piness." 

u They slew Varus, he that was " They slew Varus, who was him 
mentioned before." that I mentioned before." 

1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (3.) case, the apostrophe 
with 5 is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, " John and Eli- 
za's books $" " This was my father, mother and uncle's advice." But when 
any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of 
the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, " They are John's as well as 
Eliza's books 5" " I had the physician's, the surgeon's and the apothecary's 
assistance." 

"John's and Eliza's books." Will you correct this sentence, and give the 
Rule for it ? 

1. 
" It was the men's, (4.) women s " This measure gained the king, 
(5.) and children's lot to suf- as well as the people's appro- 

ver great calamities." bation." % 

u Peter's, John's and Andrew's " Not only the counsel's and at- 
occupation, was that of fish- torney's but the judge's opin- 

ermen." ion also, favored his cause." 

2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe re- 
tained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending in 
$ ; as, " The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in prose, 
which the following erroneous example will demonstrate : " Moses' minister 5" 
u Phinehas' wife ;" " Festus came into Felix' room ;" " These answers were 
made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would give too much 
of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission 
takes place even in prose 5 as, " For righteousness' sake 3" " For conscience 7 
sake." 

Is the additional s ever omitted ? Give an example. 

2. 
f And he cast himself down at " If ye suffer for righteousness s 

Jesus feet." sake, happy are ye." 

P Moses rod was turned into a " Ye should be subject for con- 
serpent." science's sake." 
" For Herodias sake, his brother 
Philips wife." 

(1.) Rule I. ( C J.) " Asa's heart." (3.) Or possessive. (4.) " Men" is how 
In the possessive case, the apostrophe being understood ; therefore apr y Rate T 
Cfl.) " Men, women ,-" or, " Ft was the lot of " &c 

13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a 
genitive case and the w©rd which usually follows it 3 as, " She began to extol 
the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought to be, 
u the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him. ;7 

" She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understand- 
ing." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it ? 

3. 

" They very justly condemned " They implicitly obeyed the pro 
the prodigal's, as he was call- tector's, as they called him, 

ed, senseless and extravagant imperious mandates." 

conduct." (1.) 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or 
of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the oth- 
er, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case 
should be annexed 5 or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, 
some would say, u I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller 5" others, " at 
Smith the bookseller's 3" and perhaps others, " at Smith's the bookseller's." 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom 5 and if the 
addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious 3 
as, " I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But as this 
subject requires a little further explanation, to make it intelligible to the learn- 
ers, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit 
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at or 
near the end of the phrase 5 as, " Whose prerogative is it I" " It is the king 
of Great Britain's 3" " That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal 3" " The 
bishop of LandafT's excellent book 3" " The Lord jftayor of London's author- 
ity 3" " The captain of the guard's house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems 
also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar sit- 
uation 3 especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed 3 as, 
" The emperor Leopold's 3" " Dionysius the tyrant's 5" " For David my ser- 
vant's sake 3" u Give me John the Baptist's head 3" " Paul the apostle's ad- 
vice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed 5 
and when the latter part of the sentence is extended 5 it appears to be requi- 
site that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, ana understood to the 
other 5 as, " 1 reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor 5" 
" Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar's, the greatest general 
of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very awkward to place 
the sign either st the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one 
alone : " These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jew- 
ish people 5" " VVe staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his coun- 
try, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive case may very 
properly be understood at the end of these members, an ellipsis at the latter 
part of sentences being a common construction in our language 3 as the learn- 
er will see by one or two examples : " They wished to submit, but he did 
not 3" that is, " he did not wish to submit.' 7 " He said it was their concern, 
but not his 3" that is, " not his concern.'' 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause onty, w* 
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecting circum- 
stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable ; as, 
" Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of 
antiquity's ;" i: These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of th< 
Jewish people's." It is much better to say, " This is Paul's advice, the Chri 
tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," than u Tin's is Paul the Christie 
hero, and great apostlo of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the a; 
plication of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, wcu 
oe generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect 5 as 
" The emperor's Leopold's 5" " King's George's 3" "Charles's the Second's 

M.^ u ihc senseless,' 1 '' &c " of the prodigal, as he was called." 




SYNTAX. 151 

ff The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and stationer's." The rules 
which we have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the inconvenience of 
both these modes of expression 5 and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, 
and consistent with the idiom of the language. 

Which is most agreeable to the English idiom, to say, * Smith's the book- 
seller," or " Smith the bookseller's " 1 When the words are connected and 
dependent, where is (he genitive (1.) sign to be placed 1 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, where 
should the sign of the genitive be placed ? What effect is perceived if we 
annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only of the sen- 
tence 1 Give an example. What is t'he effect of applying the genitive sign 
to both or all the nouns in apposition ? Give an example. 

4. 

" I bought the knives a.t John- " I will not for David's thy fath- 

son's (2?) the cutler's." (3.) er's sake." 

" The silk was purchased at " He took refuge at the governor, 

Brown's the mercer's and the king's representative's." 

haberdasher's.'" " Whose (5.) works are these ? 
" Lord Feversham the general's They are Cicero, the most 

tent." (4.) eloquent of men's." 

" This palace had been the grand 

sultan's Mahomet's." 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound 3 so that we daily 
make more use of the particle of to express the same relation. There is 
something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has not 
been taken : " The general, in the army's name, published a declaration 3" 
f The commons' vote 3" " The lords 7 house 3" " Unless he is very ignorant 
of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better to say, " In the name 
of the army 3" " The votes of the commons 3" " The house of lords ;" li The 
condition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two English geni- 
tives with the same substantive 3 as, " Whom he acquainted with the pope's 
and the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of the pope and the king," would 
have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another 
and connectedly the preposition of applied to each of them 3 as, u The se- 
verity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation 3" but this 
mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, 
" The severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We have a 
striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following sen- 
tence : " Of some of the books of each, of these classes of literature, a cata- 
logue will be given at the end of the work." 

11 In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the bet- 
ter ? 

5. 
" The world's government is not " It was necessary to have both 
left to chance." (C.) the physician's and the sur- 

r She married my son's wife's geon's advice." (9.) 

brother." (7.) "The extent of the prerogative 

" This is my wife's brother's part- of the king of England is suf- 

ner's house." (8.) flciently ascertained." 






G. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition 
of; as, "It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeed, un- 
less we throw tne sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces- 
sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strict- 

(1.) Or possessive. (2.) " Johnson's shop.'" Rule I. (3.) " cutler." See 

Note I. under this Rule. (4.) " The tent of lord," &c. (5.) 431. (6.) " The 

fovernment of the icorld." (7.) '-< the brother of my son's wife." (8.) " This 

ouse belongs to the partner of my wife's brother " (P.) " the advice both of." 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

\y so cafed, which is the most important of the relations expressed by the 
genitive case ; for the expressions, " This picture of my friend," and '• This 
picture of my friend's/ 7 suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that 
of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed 
in a better manner, by saying, " This picture, belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary 
to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit- 
ted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases 
which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In 
the expressions. " A subject of the emperor's 5" " A sentiment of my broth- 
er's 3" more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to 
the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily 
supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not be 
used 5 as, " This house of the governor is very commodious 5" " The crown 
of the king was stolen 3" " That privilege of the scholar was never abused." 
But, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, some 
grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use of it altogether, 
and to give the sentiment another form of expression. 

Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the 
preposition oft Give an example. Is this double genitive ever omitted ? 

6. 
" That picture of the king's does " This estate of the corporation's 

not much resemble (1.) him." . is much encumbered." 
H These pictures of the king (2.) " That is the eldest son of the 

were sent to him from Italy." king of England's." 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the 
present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, 
the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case : thus, instead 
of saying, " What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hasti- 
ly ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing- his servant so 
hastily ?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason of 
this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?" just as we say, "What 
is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant ?" So also we 
say, " 1 remember it being reckoned a great exploit 3" or, more properly, " I 
remember its being - reckoned," &c. The following sentence is correct and 
proper : " Much will depend on the pupil's composing, but more on his read- 
ing frequently." It would not be accurate to say, "Much will depend on the 
pupil composing," &c. We also properly say, "This will be the effect of 
the pupil's composing frequently 3" instead of " of the pupil composing fre- 
quently." 

" What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily V 
Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it ? 

7. 

" What (3.) can be the cause of the Hollanders their throwing 

the parliament neglecting so off the monarchy of Spain 

important a business." and their withdrawing entire- 

" Much depends on this rule being ]y their allegiance to that 

observed." crown." 

" The time of William making! " If we alter the situation of any 

the experiment, at length ar- of the words, we shall pres- 

rived." ently be sensible of the melo- 

" It is very probable that this as- dy suffering." 

sembly was called, to clear " Such will ever be the effect of 

some doubt which the king youth associating witn vicious 

had about the lawfulness of companions." 

{!.} 536. (%) Or, " Tliese pictures belonging to the king, *' &c. (3.) Rule XV 



SYNTAX. 153 

RULE VIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XI. 

Active transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

In English, the nominative case, denoting- the subject, usually goes before 
the verb 3 and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active j 
and it is the order that determines the case in nouns ; as, " Alexander con- 
quered the Persians." But the pronoun, having a proper form for each of 
those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the 
verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb 5 as, 
"Wliom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and gov- 
ernment to be neglected 5 as in the following instances : u Who should I es- 
teem more than the wise and good V " By the character of those who you 
choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the 
persons who he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the other 
day but my old friend ?" u Whosoever the court favors." In all these places, 
it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by the 
verbs esteem, choose, thought, &c. u lie, who, under all proper circum- 
stances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend 5" it should be 
"him who," &c. 

Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- 
nouns. " He sleeps," " they muse," &c, are not transitive. They are, there- 
fore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an action. 
But when this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, though it 
may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a 

Exposition or some other word understood 5 as, " He resided many years 
that is, for or during many years] in that street 5" " He rode several miles 
that is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day ;" " He lay 
an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the phrases, " To 
dream a dream," " To live a virtuous life," " To run a race," " To walk the 
horse," " To dance the child," the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, 
and may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 

How is the nominative case usually known in English ? How the objec- 
tive ? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns ? In the phrase, " He 
resided many years in that street," how do you parse years ? When verbs 
naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may they then be called 1 

" They who opulence has made " She that is idle and mischievous, 

proud, and who luxury has reprove sharply." 

corrupted, cannot relish the " Who did they send to him on 

simple pleasures of nature." so important an errand ?" 

•' You have reason to dread his " That is the friend (4.) who you 

wrath, which one day (1.) must receive cordially, and 

will destroy ye both." who you cannot esteem too 

" Wlio have I reason to love so (2.) highly ." 

much (2.) as this friend (3.) of " He invited my brother and 1 li- 
my youth ?" see and examine (3.) his to 

" Ye, who were dead, hath he brary." 

quickened." " He who committed the offence, 

11 Who did they entertain so free- you should correct, not I, who 

ly?" am innocent." 

1 The man icho he raised from " We should fear and obey the 

obscurity, is dead." Author of our being, even He 

n Ye only have I known of all the who has power to reward or 

families of the earth." punish us forever." 

" He and they we know, but who " They who he had most (5.) in- 

(4.) are you ?" jured, he had the greatest 

reason to love." 



(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) Adverb. (3.) Rule XI. (4.) Rule XV. (5.) 678. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if 
they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the 
French construction of reciprocal verbs 3 but this custom is so foreign to the 
idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The 
following are some instances of this practice : " Repenting him of his design." 
" The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous 
enemies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- 
ject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." " Go, flee 
thee away into the land of Judah." " I think it by no means a fit and decen 
thing to vie charities," &c. " They have spent their whole time and pains to 
agree the sacred with the profane chronology." 

" Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the note which shows 
this sentence to be incorrect ? 

1. 

'* Though he now takes pleasure before him, the humbler he 

in them, he will one day (1.) grew." 

repent him (2.) of indulgences " It will be very difficult to agree 

so unwarrantable." his conduct with (3.) the prin- 

" The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes." 

ed him to the great example 

2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or in- 
transitive 5 as, " I must premise with three circumstances 3" " Those who 

hink to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 

" I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sen- 
tence, and give the rule for it 1 

41 To ingratiate (4.) with some by "I shall premise with two of 
traducing others, marks a base three general observations.' 

and despicable mind." 

3. The neuter verb (5.) is varied like the active 3 but, haying, in some de- 
gree r the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, 
retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort 
of motion, or change of place or condition 3 as, " I am come 3" " I was gone 5" 
" I am grown 3" " I was fallen." The following examples, however, appear 
to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active 
one : " The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely swerved." 
" The whole obligation of that law and covenant was also ceased. 17 " Whose 
number was now amounted to three hundred." " This mareschal, upon some 
discontent, was entered into a conspiracy against his master." " At the end 
of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed." It should be, " have 
swerved," " had ceased," &c. 

*{ I am come." Why should not this be " I have come" ? 

3. 

H If such maxims and such prac- " The mighty rivals are now at 
tices (6.) prevail, what has length agreed." 

(7.) become of decency and " The influence of his corrupt 
virtue ?" example was (8.) then entire- 

u { have come, according to the ly ceased." 

time proposed 3 but I have " He was entered into the con- 
fallen upon an evil hour." nection before the conse- 
quences were considered." 

(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) " repent of." (3.) « to make agree tcith," &c 

{4.) " ingratiate ourselves." (5.) By neuter and active, Mr. Murray here means 

what in this work are styled intransitive and transitive verbs, (6,) Rule XI 

<70 " is become." (8.) " had." 



SYNTAX. J 55 

Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
signifying the same thing, come together, they are put by appo- 
sition in the same case. 

[O 3 The examples which follow may be collected by this Rule or the follow- 
ing Note. 

4. The verb to be, through all its variations; has the same case after it as 
that which next precedes it. a I am he whom they invited." " It may be 
(or, it might have been) he, but it cannot be (or, could not have been) I. 77 "It 
is impossible to be they. 77 " It seems to have been he who conducted himself 
so wisely." " It appeared to be she that transacted the business." " I un- 
derstood it to be trim." " I believe it to have been them. 77 " We at first took 
it to be Iter ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she. 77 " He is 
not the person ivho it seemed he was." " He is really ihe person who he ap- 
peared to be." u She is not now the woman whom they represented her to 
nave been." " Wliom do you fancy him to be ?" By these examples, it ap- 
pears that this substantive verb has no government of case ; but serves, in all 
its forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the con- 
struction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. 
Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that 
the words in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to 
be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, " I understood it to be 
nim," the words it and him are in apposition ; that is, " they refer to the same 
thing, and are in the same case." 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit the 
pronoun in a wrong case. " It might have been him, but there is no proof of 
it." " Though I was blamed, it could not have been me 77 u I saw one whom 
I took to be she. 77 " She is the person, who I understood it to have been." 
" Wlio do you think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" " And 
whom think ye that I am ?" 

Passive verbs, which signify naming, &.C., have the same case before and 
after them; as, "He was called Caesar;" "She was named Penelope;" 
" Homer is styled the prince of poets ;" " James was created a duke ;" " The 
general was saluted emperor ;" " The professor was appointed tutor to the 
prince." 

" I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, and give 

the rule for it ? 

4. 

* " Well may you be afraid ; it is them (2.) who conducted the 

him indeed." business; but I am certain it 

" I would act the same part, if I was not him." 

were him, (1.) or in his situa- u He so much resembled my 

tion." brother, that, at first sight, 1 

" Search the Scriptures, for in took it to be he." 

them ye think ye have eternal " After all their professions, is it 

life ; and they are them which possible to be them ?" 

testify of me." " It could not have been her, for 

" Be composed : it is me : you she always behaves discreet- 
have no cause for fear." ly." 

" I cannot tell who has befriended " If it was not him, who do you 

me, unless it is him from imagine it to have been ?" 

whom I have received many " Who do you think him to be?" 

benefits." " Whom do the people say that 

" I know not whether it were we are ?" 

* When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case, before and after it, as 
when it is expressed; as, " He seems the leader of the party;" "He shall con- 
tinue steward;" "They appointed me executor;" "1 supposed him a man ot 
learning- ;" — that is, " He seems to be the leader of the party," &c. Nouns in appo- 
sition are in the same case ; as, "We named the man Pompey ;" " They may term 
Charles a visionary, but they cannot call him a deceiver;' 5 " Hortensius died a 
martyr ;" " The gentle Sidnev lived the shepherd's friend." 

(1.) Rule XV (2.) " tkey were the persons.' 1 ' 



15G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case; as, "Let him beware ; r 
" Let us judge candidly 5" " Let them not presume 3" " Let George study his 
lesson." 

" Let us judge candidly." In what case is us ? What is the rule ? 

5. 
" Whatever (1.) others do, let (2.) " Let them and we unite to op 
thou and / act wisely." pose this growing (3.) evil." 

RULE XII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, partici- 
ples, adjectives, nouns and pronouns. 

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is some- 
times pioperly omitted j as, "I heard him say it ;" instead of u to say it." 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in the infini- 
tive mood, without the sign to, arc, bid, dare, need, nvike, see, hear, feel, and 
also let, not used as an auxiliary ; and perhaps a few others ; as, " I bade him 
do it 3" " Ye dare not do it 3" " I saw him do it 5" "I heard him say it 3" 
" Thou lettest him go." 

Will you name the verbs which have commonly other verbs in the infinitive 
mood after them, without the sign to ? 

" It is better (4.) live on a lit- " I need not to solicit him to do a 

tie, (5 ) than outlive a good kind action." 

deal." " I dare not to proceed so hastily, 

" You ought not walk too hastily." lest I should give offence." 

" 1 wish him not wrestle with " I have seen some young persons 

his happiness." to conduct themselves very 

discreetly." 

1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, 
where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper : " I 
have observed some satirists to use," &c. u To see so many to make so little 
conscience of so great a sin." u It cannot but be a delightful spectacle to God 
and angel*, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temptations on every 
side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the most 
violent assaults 5 to behold one in the prime and flower of his age, that is 
courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities 
of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto God." 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following places : " I am 
not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach." " Grammarians have 
aenied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine." " That all our doings may 
oe ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and parti- 
ciples 3 as, " He is eager to learn 5" " She is worthy to be loved 3" " They 
have a desire to improve ;" " Endeavoring to persuade." 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing the 
action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of an ad- 
jective. Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in dine rent 
cases : — in the nominative ; as, " To play is pleasant :" — in the objective , as, 
11 Boys love to -play ;" " For to will is present with me 3 but to perform that 
which is good, I find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the 
rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the po- 
tential mood 3 as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault 3" " To begin with 
the first ;" " To proceed 5" « To conclude 3"— that is, " That I may confess/ 
&c. 

(1.) Rule VIII. (2.) Imp. Rule VI. (3.) 559. (4.) " to live." Rule XII 

(5.) Noun. 



SYNTAX. 157 

" 1 have observed some satirists to use," &c. What- is incorrect in this 
sentence ? 

In the expression, " He is eager to learn," will you parse to learn ? What 
is the rule ? (1.) " To play is pleasant." Will you parse to play, and give 
a rule for it 1 (1.) " To confess the truth, I was in fault." How is io con- 
fess parsed ? What is the rule for it ? (2.) 

1. 
" It is a great support to virtue, are courted by health and 

when we see a good mind to pleasure, to resist all the 

maintain (3.) its patience and allurements of vice, and to 

tranquillity, under injuries and steadily pursue virtue and 

affliction, and to cordially for- knowledge, is cheering and 

give its oppressors." delightful to every good 

" It is the difference of their con- mind." 

duct, which makes us to ap- " They acted with so much re- 
prove the one, and to reject serve, that some persons 
the other." doubted them to be sincere.'* 
" We should not be like many (7.) 

persons, to (4.) depreciate the " And the multitude wondered, 
virtues we (5.) do not pos- when they saw the lame to 

sess." walk, and the blind to see." 

" To see (6.) young persons who (8.) 

HULE XXVI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XIII. 

hi the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, 
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
should be observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord 
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," we 
should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath 
talcen away." Instead of " I remember the family 
more than twenty years," it should be, " I have re- 
membered the family more than twenty years." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the moods and 
tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and 
consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one — u To 
observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however be of use to 
give a few examples of irregular construction. " The last week I intended 
to have written/' is a very common phrase 5 the infinitive being in the past 
time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; for now 
long soever it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then present to 
me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back that time, and 
the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I intended to 
write." The following sentences are also erroneous : u I cannot excuse the 
remissness of those whose business it should have been, as it certainly was 
their interest, to have biterposed their good offices." " There were two cir- 
cumstances which made it necessary for them to have lost no time." " Histo- 
ry painters would have found it difficult to Jiave invented such a species of be- 
ings." They ou^ht to be, to inteiyose, to lose, to invent. u On the morrow, 
because he would have known the certainty wherefore he was accused of the 
Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, u because he would know, 7 ' or, rather, 
I being willing to know." " The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might 

(1.) Rule XII. (2.) Note XTI. LVIII. (3.) For to maintain read maintain. 

(4.) " who." (5.) " they." (6.) Note XIII. (7.) " their sincerity." 

(8^ "persons who had been lame., walking; and those wJie had been i>lind y seeing." 

14 o 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

receive my signt." " If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of 
the dead." may, in both places, would have been better. "From his bibli- 
cal knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptures with great attention ;" " to 
have studied," &c. '* 1 feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at 
the city 5" " should lose it." a I had rather walk 5" it should be, " I would 
rather walk." u It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform 
it 3" it should be, " if I could liave performed it 3" or, " It would afford me no 
satisfaction, if I could perform it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in the 
subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a fu- 
ture sense 3 and that the auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, 
are used to express the present or future, as well as the past. 

" I intended to have written." Will you point out the incorrectness of this 
sentence, and give a rule for it ? 

u The next new year's day I shall hold on all the opportunities 

he (1.) at school three years." which the imprudence, weak- 

" And he that ivas dead (2.) sat ness, or necessities of princes 

up, and began to speak." afford it, to extend its author- 

" I should be obliged to him, if ity." 

he will gratify me in that " Fierce as he moved, his silver 

particular." shafts resound." 

" And the multitude wondered, " They maintained that scripture 

when they saw the dumb to conclusion, that all mankind 

speak, the maimed to be whole,' rise from one head." 

the lame walk, and the blind " John will earn his wages when 

seeing." (3.) his service is completed." 

" 1 have compassion on the mul- " Ye will not come unto me that 

titudc, because they continue ye might have life." 

with me now three days." " Be that as it will, he cannot 

" In the treasury belonging to the justify his conduct." 

cathedral in this city is pre- " I have been at London a year, 
served (4.) with the greatest and seen the king last sum- 
veneration, for upwards of six mer." 

hundred years, a dish which " After we visited London, we 
they pretend to be made of returned, content and thank- 
emerald." ful, to our retired and peace 

" The court of Rome gladly laid ful habitation." 

1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive mood in the 
following form— to write, to he writing, and to he w ritterb— always denote some- 
thing contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or subsequent to it ; 
but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows — to have been writing, to 
have loritten. and to have been ivritten — they always denote something antece- 
dent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought to be of im- 
portance 5 for, if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct 
us in the relative application of these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : " I found 
him better than I expected to find him." " Expected to have found him," is 
irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive oi 
hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the pres- 
ent, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive an er- 
ror in this expression — •" It is long since I commanded him to have done it 3" 
yet " expected to have found," is no better. It is as clear that the finding 
must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be posterior to 
the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect 
tense of the infinitive mood : "It would have afforded me great pleasure, as 

(1.) " shall have been." (2.) " had been dead." (3.) See the last example under 
the preceding Rule. (4.) " a dish has Seen preserved w 



SYNTAX 159 

>ften as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence.'' 
Ikfi the message, in this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not con- 
jmporary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote that ante- 
edence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. U the message and the 
>leasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb would, 
vith equal propriety, have been put in the present of the infinitive 5 as, " It 
vould have afforded me great pleasure, to be the messenger of such intelli- 
gence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these 
ivords — " If 1 had been the messenger j" in the latter instance, to this expres- 
sion — " Being the messenger." 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past time 
'ith the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always be 
$ed 5 as, " He ought to have done it." When we use this verb, this is the 
ily possible way to distinguish the past from the present. 
In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the 
sentiments of eminent grammarians 5 amongst whom are Lowth and Camp- 
>ell. But there are some writers on grammar who strenuously maintain, that 
"ie governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the verb 
rhich governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted, in the 
istances which are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a sim- 
lar nature ; yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, in which the thing 
referred to preceded the governing verb, it would be proper and allowable. 
'Ve may say, " From a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to have 
iudied Homer with great care and judgment." It would be proper also to 
ly, " From his conversation, he appears to Iiave studied Homer with great 
re and judgment 5" " That unhappy man is supposed to have died by vio- 
mce." These examples are not only consistent with our rule, but they con- 
and illustrate it. It is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks 
rhat is called the absolute time j the tense of the verb governed maiks solely 
s relative time with respect to the other. 
To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no 
tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past and future, is inconsistent with 
just grammatical views of the subject. That these verbs associate with verbs 
in ah the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their own. 
Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, or fu- 
ture, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and its 
time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, af- 
ter, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing sig- 
nified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with the thing 
denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety, that 
tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time from 
which they are computed^ is of no consequence 5 since present, past, and fu- 
ture, are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that, 
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive alter the governing 
verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to give the ex- 
pression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have written 
to him sooner," " I then wished to have written to him sooner," " He will one 
day wish to have written sooner j" it would be more perspicuous and forcible, 
as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, " I wish that 
I had written to him sooner," " I then wished that I had written to him soon- 
er," " He will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the justness 
of these strictures be admitted, there would still be numerous occasions for the 
use of the past infinitive 5 as we may perceive by a few examples : " It would 
ever afterwards have been a sowrce of pleasure, to have found him wise and 
virtuous." " To have deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualifi- 
ed him for repenting at all." " They will then see, that to have faithfully 
performed their duty, would have been their greatest consolation." 

" I expected to have found him." Will you correct this sentence, and give 
a rule for it ? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past time 
with the defective verb ought ? Give an example. Is it proper ever to use 
the perfect of the infinitive after the governing verb ? Give an example. 



ICO 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



u I purpose to go to London in a 
few months, and after I shall 
finish (1,) my business there, 
to proceed (2.) to America." 

" These prosecutions of William 
seem to be the most iniquitous 
measures pursued by the 
court during the time that 
the use of parliaments was 
suspended." 

u From the little conversation I 
had with him, he appeared to 
have been a man of letters." 

" I always intended to have re- 
warded my son according to 
his merit." 

" It would, on reflection, have 
given me great satisfaction, 
to relieve him from that dis- 
tressed situation." 

" It required so much care, that I 
thought I should have lost it 
before I reached home." 

" We have done no more than it 
was our duty to have done." 

" He would have assisted one of 
his friends, if he could do it 
without injuring the other; 
but as that could not have 
been done, he avoided all in- 
terference." 

" Must it not be expected that he 
would have defended an au- 
thority, which had been so 



long exercised without con 
troversy ?" (3.) 

" These enemies of Christianity 
were confounded, whilst they 
were expecting to haVe found 
an opportunity to have be- 
trayed its author." 

" His sea-sickness was so great, 
that I often feared he would 
have died before our arrival." 

" If these persons had intended 
to deceive, they would have 
taken care to have avoided 
what would expose them to 
the objections of their oppo- 
nents." 

" It was a pleasure to have re- 
ceived his approbation of my 
labors, for which I cordially 
thanked him." 

" It would have afforded me still 
greater pleasure, to receive his 
approbation at an earlier pe- 
riod ; but to receive (4.) it at 
all, reflected credit upon me." 

" To be censured by him, would 
soon have proved an insuper- 
able discouragement." 

" Him portioned maids, appren- 
ticed orphans blest, 

The young who labor, and the 
old who rest." 

" The doctor, in his lecture, said, 
that fever always produced 
thirst." 



HULE XIV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XIV. 

Active participles from active transitive verbs govern 
the objective case. 

" Esteeming (5.) their selves wise, 

they became fools." 
il Suspecting not only ye, but they 

also, I was studious to avoid 

all intercourse." 
" I could not avoid considering, 

(6.) in some degree, they as 

1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article 5 for the present parti 
ciple, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive, and must 
have the preposition of after it ; as, a These are the rules of grammar, by the 
observing of which, you may avoid mistakes. " It w r ould not be proper to 



enemies to me ; and he as 1 
suspicious friend." 
From having exposed (7.) hisself 
too freely, in different cli- 
mates, he entirely lost his 
health." 



(1.) " shall have finished." (2.) Rule IX. 
'4.) « to have received. » Note XIII. 



(3.) " Might it not have been, 
(5.) Rule XIII. 



&c. 

(6.) Rule Vlll. (7.) 561. 



SYNTAX. 161 

say, " by the observing which," nor, " by observing of which 3" but the 
phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right 3 as, " by observ- 
ing which." The article a or an has the same effect 3 as ; " This was a be- 
traying of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as 
plain a principle as any on which it is founded 3 namely, that a word which 
has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a 
noan 3 and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to 
have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of 
words, that is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were of an 
amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was 
sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, ' ; by the 
preaching of repentance," or, " by preaching repentance." " By the contin- 
ual mortifying our corrupt affections 3" it should be, " by the continual morti- 
fying of/' or, " by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." il They 
laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good of it 3" 
" towards advancing and promoting the good." " It is an overvaluing our- 
selves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities 3" " it is 
overvaluing ourselves," or, " an overvaluing of ourselves." u Keeping of 
one day in seven," &c. 3 it ought to be, " ^keeping of one day," or, " keep- 
ing one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and the pos- 
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same 
meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and 
preposition. " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philos- 
opher," is capable of a different sense from, " He expressed the pleasure he 
had in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of 
harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we 
should previously consider whether they are perfectly similar in the sentiments 
they convey. 

u By the observing of which." Will you parse observing ? Rule for it 1 
What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety ? Would it te 
proper to omit one of them only 1 

1. 

" By observing of truth, you will situated for gaining of wis- 

command esteem, as well as dom. Poverty turns our 

secure peace." thoughts too much upon the 

" He prepared them for this event, supplying our wants ; and 

by the sending to them proper riches upon the enjoying our 

information." superfluities." 

" A person may be great or rich " Pliny, speaking of Cato the 

by chance ; but cannot be wise Censor's disapproving the 

or good without the taking Grecian orators, expressed 

pains for it." himself thus." 

1 Nothing could have made her " Propriety of pronunciation is 

so unhappy, as the marrying the giving to every word that 

a man w T ho possessed such sound, which the most polite 

principles." usage of the language appro- 

" The changing times and seasons, priates to it." 

the removing and setting up " lite not attending (1 .) to this 

kings, belong to Providence rule, is the cause (2.) of a 

alone." very common error." 

" The middle station of life seems ll This was in fact a converting 

to be the most advantageously the deposite to his own use." 

2. The same observations which have been made respecting the eflfe 
-tide and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and pai 1- 
ple, when they are similarly associated 3 as. " Much depends on their c' 

(1.) Rule VT ;2.) Rule XV 

14 * 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of it f 
instead of " their observing the rule, and their neglecting it. 77 We shall per- 
ceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun 5 as, " Much 
depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule, 77 &c. But, as this construction 
sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment 
in the following, or some other form : " Much depends on the rule's being ob- 
served; and error will be the consequence on its being neglected.:" or, "on 
observing the rule •" and, " of neglecting it. 77 This remark may be applied 
to several other modes of expression to be found in this work 3 which, though 
they are contended for as strictly correct, are not always the most eligible, on 
account of their unpleasant sound. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : " In forming of 
his sentences, he was very exact j 77 " From calling of names, he proceeded 
to blows. 77 But this is incorrect language 3 for prepositions do not, like arti- 
cles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substan- 
tive 3 as we have shown above in the phrase, " by observing which. 77 And 
yet the participle, with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase 
m the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un- 
derstood 3 as, u By promising much, and -performing but little, we become 
despicable ;" " He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely," 

u Much depends on their observing of the rule. 77 Would this sentence be 
correct if the preposition of were omitted ? Will you repeat the note 1 

2. 

" There will be no danger of their ing the directions, that we 

(1.) spoiling their faces, or of lost our way." 

their gaining converts." u Jn tracing of his history, we dis- 

" For his avoiding that precipice, cover little that is worthy of 

he is indebted to his friend's imitation." 

care." " By reading of books written by 

" It was from our misunderstand- the best authors, his mind 

became highly improved." 
3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different 
in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is 
frequently said, " He begun/ 7 for " he began j" " He run, 77 for " he ran 3" 
" He drunk, 77 for " he drank 3" the participle being here used instead of the 
imperfect tense : and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the 
participle 3 as, " I had wrote, 77 for " I had written ;" " I was chose, 77 for u I 
was chosen 5" " I have eat, 77 for " I have eaten. 77 " His words were inter- 
wove with sighs ;" "were interwoven." " He would have spoke ; 77 "spoken." 
u He hath bore witness to his faithful servants \" u borne." " By this means 
he overrun his guide 3" " overran." " The sun has rose 3" " risen." " His 
constitution has been greatlv shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook by 
such causes 3" " shaken," in both places. " They were verses wrote on 
glass 3 77 "written." u Philosophers have often mistook the source of true 
happiness 5" it ought to be, " mistaken." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed 
into t ; as, " In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school 5" 
" She was much distrest 3" they ought to be," suiyassed" u distressed." 

Is it correct to say, n He begun 77 1 What is wrong in the expression ? 
Will you repeat Note 3 ? Can the participle ending in ed be contracted to t, 
with propriety ? 

3. 
u . By too eager pursuit, he run a " Me was greatly heated, and 
great risk of being disappoint- drunk with avidity." 

ed." (2.) " Though his conduct was, in 

u He had not long enjoyed repose, some respects, exceptionable, 

before he began to be weary yet he dared not commit so 

of having nothing to do." great an offence as that which 

was proposed to him." 

(1.) Omit u tfuir " (2) Pres. pass. part, used as a noun—Rule X. 



SYNTAX. 



163 



" A second deluge learning thus 

o'errun, 
And the monks finished what the 

Goths begun." 
" If some events had not fell out 

very unexpectedly, I should 

have been present." 
n He would have went with us, 

had he been invited." 
** He returned the goods which 

he had stole, and made all the 

reparation in his power." 
" They have chose the part of 

honor and virtue." 
" His vices have weakened his 

mind, and broke his health." 
11 He had mistook his true interest, 

and found himself forsook by 

his former adherents." 
" The bread that has been eat is 

soon forgot." 
11 No contentions have arose 

amongst them since their re- 
conciliation." 
" The cloth had no seam, but was 

wove throughout." 
u The French language is spoke 



in every state in Europe." 

" His resolution was too strong 
to be shook by slight opposi 
tion." 

" He was not much restrained 
afterwards, having took im- 
proper liberties at first." 

" He has not yet wore off the 
rough manners w T hich he 
brought with him." 

"You who have forsook your 
friends, are entitled to no 
confidence." 

" They who have bore a part in 
the labor, shall share the re- 
wards." 

" When the rules have been wan- 
tonly broke, there can be no 
plea for favor." 

" He writes as the best authors 
would have wrote, had they 
writ on the same subject." 

" He heapt up great riches, but 
past his time miserably." 

" He talkt and stampt with such 
vehemence, that he was sus 
pected to be insane." 



RULE xxvxx. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
fyc, require an appropriate situation in the sentence, 
viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs 
active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary 
and the verb ; as, " He made a very sensible dis- 
course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and was 
attentively heard by the whole assembly." 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate 
the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable always j" " always 
agreeable.' 7 " We always find them ready when we want them ;" " we find 
them always ready/' &c. u Dissertations on the prophecies which have re- 
markably been fulfilled ;" " which have been remarkably." " Instead of 
looking 1 contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should 
look up thankfully io God, who hath made us better; 77 "Instead of looking 
down contemptuously, &c, we should thankfully look up" &c. " If thou art 
blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it ;" " naturally 
blessed" &lc. u exercise it continually" 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some 
distance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes af- 
ter them both ; as in the following examples : " Vice always creeps by de 
grees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we 
are at last completely bound.' 7 " He encouraged the English barons to carry 
their opposition farther ;" " They compelled him to declare that he would ab- 
jure the realm Jbrever ;" instead of, "to carry farther their opposition f and 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

u to abjure forever the realm." u He has generally been reckoned an hon 
est man 5" u The book may always be had at such a place 3" in preference 
to " has been generally/' and u may be always." " These rules will be 
clearly understood, after the} 7 have been diligently studied/ 7 is preferable to, 
" These rules will clearly be understood, after they have diligently been 
studied." 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and 
determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. 
The general rule may be of considerable use 3 but the easy flow and perspicu- 
ity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

" The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds 
nothing to the sense 5 in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative 
noun 3 as, " There is a person at the door 3" " There are some thieves in the 
house 3" which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A person 
is at the door 5" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made 
use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence 5 as, " There was a 
roan sent from God, whose name was John." When it is applied in its strict 
sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case 3 as, " The man 
stands there" 

What word is misplaced in the sentence, " He must not expect to find study 
agreeable always" ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule for 
the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with respect 
to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? 

" He was pleasing not often, (1.) great hopes to his friends.' 

because he was vain." " Not only he found her employ 

" William nobly acted, though he ed, but pleased and tranquil 

w^as unsuccessful." also." 



n 



We may happily live, though " We always should prefer our 

our possessions are small." duty to our pleasure." 

" From w T hence (2.) we may date " It is impossible continually to 

likewise the period of this be at work." 

event." " The heavenly bodies are in mo- 

" It cannot be impertinent or ri- tion perpetually." 

diculous, therefore, to remon- " Having not known, or having 

strate." not considered, the measures 

" He offered an apology, w T hich proposed, he failed of suo- 

not being admitted, he became cess." 

submissive." " My opinion was given on rather 

" These things should be never a (5.) cursory perusal of the 

separated." book." 

" Unless he have more govern- " It is too common with mankind, 

ment of himself, he will be to be engrossed, and over- 

always discontented." come totally, by present 

" Never (3.) sovereign was (4.) so events." 

much beloved by the people." " When the Romans were pressed 

" He was determined to invite with a foreign enemy, the 

back the king, and to call to- women contributed all their 

gether his friends." rings and jewels voluntarily, 

" So well educated a boy gives to assist the government." 

1 . The adverb never generally precedes the verb 3 as, H I never was 
there 3" " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, it 
is placed indifferently , either before or after this adverb 3 as, u He was never 
seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to be im- 
properly used in the following passages : " Ask me never so much dowry and 
gift." " If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." 
The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. 

(1.) « not often pleasing." (2.) 589. (3.) " JW " (4.) " ever so » 

(5.) "a rather."— R\Pq IX. 






SYNTAX. 165 

How is the adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb ? Give 
an example. Give an example where the word never is 'mproperly used in- 
stead of ever. 

1. 
1 They could not persuade him, " If some persons' opportunities 
though they were never so were never so favorable, they 

eloquent." would be indolent to improve 

them.' 7 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often used 
instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. " They framed a protesta- 
tion, where they repeated all their former claims;" i. e. "in which they re- 
peated." " The king was still determined to run forwards, in the same course 
where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced j" i. e. 
" in which he was." But it wo\ild be better to avoid this mode of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition ; for they signi- 
fy " from this place," " from that place," " from what place." It seems, 
therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, 
because it is superfluous ; as, " This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of 
our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient author prophesies 
from hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and the 
preposition from so often used in construction with them, that the omission of 
it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig- 
nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither ; as, " He came 
here hastily ;" " They rode there with speed." They should be, " He came 
hither ;" " They rode thither, 77 &c. 

" They framed a protestation where they repeated all their former claims." 
Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2 ? 

2. 

" He drew up a petition, where he " George is active ; he walked 

too freely represented his own there in less than an hour." 

merits." (1.) 

" His follies had reduced him to " Where are you all going in such 

a situation where he had much haste ?" 

to fear, and nothing to hope." " Whither have they been since 
' It is reported that the prince they left the city ?" 

will come here to-morrow." 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : " In 
1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since wJien it has begun to 
increase in those countries as a religious order ;" i.e. " since which time. 71 
" A little while, and I shall not see you ;" i. e. " a short time. 77 " It is worth 
their while ;" i. e. " it deserves their time and pains." But this use of the 
word rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said of the 
phrase, " To do a thing anyhow ;" i. e. " in any manner :" or, " somehow ;" 
l. e. " in some manner." " Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are 
under the influence of prejudice." 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? 

3. 

" Charles left the seminary too " Nothing is better worth the 
early, since when he has while (3.) of young persons, 

made very little improve- than the acquisition of knowl- 

ment." (2.) edge and virtue." 

(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) " and from that time he," &c. ; or, " and has since made," &c 
(3 ) " the time and attention of," &c. 



166 ENG LISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XVI. 

Two negatives, in the same simple sentence, are equiva- 
lent to an affirmative ; as, " Nor did they not per 
ceive him ;" i. e. " They did perceive him. 5 ' 

It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative, than by two 
separate negatives, as in the former sentence 5 but when one of the negatives 
is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form a 
pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one ; as 
in the following instances : " I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not 
now 5" " nor shall I now." u Never no imitator grew up to his author ;" 
u never did any, 77 &c. " I cannot by no means allow him what his argument 
must prove 5" " I cannot by any means," &c. 3 or, " / can by no means/ 7 
il Nor let no comforter approach me 3" " nor let any comforter," &c. " Nor 
is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we common- 
ly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes 3" it should be, u any more: 7 
" Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics j" 
u Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a 
republic.' 7 

Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two separate 
negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives ? 

" Neither riches nor honors, nor " Do not interrupt me yourselves 
no such perishing goods, can nor let no one disturb my re- 

satisfy the desires of an im- tirement." 

mortal spirit." " These people do not judge wise- 

" Be honest, nor take no shape ly, nor take no proper measure 

nor semblance of disguise." to effect their purpose." 

" We need not, nor (1.) do not, "The measure is so exception- 
confine his operations to nar- able, that we cannot by no 
row limits." means permit it." 

u I am resolved not to comply " I have received no information 
with the proposal, neither at on the subject, neither from 

present, nor at any other him nor from his friend." 

time." " Precept nor discipline is not so 

M There cannot be nothing more forcible as example." 

insignificant than vanity." " The king nor the queen was 

" Nothing never affected her so not all deceived in the busi- 



much, as this misconduct of ness. 

her child." 

EULS X. 



Corresponding with Murray's Grammar 
RULE XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 



.. 



The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of 
the objective : " Who servest thou under ?'*' u Who do you speak to V 
" We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to." " Who dost thou 
ask for V 7 y Associate not with those who none can speak well of." In all 
these places, it ought to be " whom. 77 

The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pro- 
nouns : as, " Give me the book 5" " Get me some paper f that is, " to me," 
- ______ 






SYNTAX. 167 

"for me." " Wo is me 5" i. e. '• to me," " He was banished England f 
1. e. "from England. 7 ' 

11 Who do you speak to ?" Will you correct this sentence, and explain 
why it is wrong 1 " Give me the book." What is understood in this sen- 
tence ? 
" We are all accountable creatures, to 1 Who does he offer such 

each for kisself" language to ?" 

u They willingly, and of theirselves, " It was not he that they were so 

endeavored to make up the differ- angry with." 

ence." " What concord can subsist between 

* He laid the suspicion upon some- those who commit crimes, and 

body, I know not who, in the they (2.) who abhor them?" 

company." " The person who I travelled with, 

"I hope it is not I who (1.) he is has sold the horse which he rode 

displeased with." on during our journey." 

u To poor we, there is not much hope u It is not I he is engaged with." 

remaining." u Who did he receive that intelligence 

(< Does that boy know who he speaks from V 1 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs ; 
as, " Whom wilt thou give it to V 9 instead of, " To whom wilt thou give it ?" 
" He is an author whom I am much delighted with ;" u The world is too po- 
lite to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first 
that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our language is strongly in- 
eriied ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very w r ell with the fa- 
miliar style in writing : but the placing of the preposition before the relative is 
more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the 
solemn and elevated style. 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? 

1. 
u To have no one whom we heartily " He is a friend whom I am highly 
wish well to, and whom we are indebted to." 

warmly concerned for, is a de- 
plorable state." 

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect 
different prepositions with the same noun 5 as, il To suppose the zodiac and 
planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to. themselves." This, whether 
in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should general- 
ly be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness 
of expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admit- 
ted. 

Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs 7 
When may it be admitted ? 

2. 
" On these occasions, the pronoun is "They were refused entrance into, and 
governed by, (3.) and consequently forcibly driven from, the house " 

agrees with, the preceding word.' 7 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different 
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Tims we 
say, " To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house," &c. We also 
say, " We are disappointed of a thing," when we cannot get it, " and disap- 
pointed in it," when we have it, and find it does not answer our expectations. 
But two differo ,t prepositions must be improper in the same construction, and 
in the same sentence j as, " The combat between thirtv French against twenty 
English." 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the prefer- 
ence is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not de- 
cided in favor of either of them. We say, a Expert at," and " Expert in a 
thing 5" " Expert at rinding a remedy for his mistakes f u Expet in decep 
tion." 

(I.) "withivhom." (2.) " those. (3.) "by Ihe preceding word, and consequently agrees with it " 



W8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same that 
are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived 5 as, " A compli- 
ance wfth," " to comply with ;" " A disposition to tyranny," " disposed to 
tyrannize." 

Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a dif 
ferent preposition ? 

3. 
* We are often disappointed of things, pany, but have always hitherto 

which, before possession, prom- been disappointed in that pleas- 

ised much enjoyment." ure. ,; 

" I have frequently desired their com- 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great impor- 
tance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety in the 
application of this part of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition of. " He is resolved of going to the 
Persian court 5" " on going," &c. " He was totally dependent of the Papal 
crown 3" " on the Papal," &c. " To call of a person," and " to wait of him 3" 
" on a person," &c. " He was eager of recommending- it to his fellow-citi- 
zens ;" " in recommending," &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes 
inserted, after worthy; as, " It is worthy observation," or, " of observation." 
But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences : " The em- 
ulation, who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, 
but of who should obtain the most lucrative command." " The rain hath been 
falling of a long time 5" " falling a long time." " It is situation chiefly which 
decides of the fortune and characters of men 3" u decides the fortune," or, 
" concerning the fortune." " He found the greatest difficulty of writing 3" " in 
writing." " It might have given me a greater taste of its antiquities." A 
taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it, implies only 
a capacity for enjoyment. " This had a much greater share of inciting him, 
than any regard after his father's commands 3" " share in inciting," and u re- 
gard to his father's," &c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. " You have bestowed 
your favors to the most deserving persons 3" " upon the most deserving," &c. 
" He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch j" " of having betrayed." 
" His abhorrence to that superstitious figure 3" " of that," &c. " A great 
change to the better 5" u for the better." " Your prejudice to my cause 3" 
" against." " The English were very different people then to what they are 
at present 3" "from what," &c. " In compliance to the declaration 3" "with," 
&c. " It is more than they thought for 3" " thought of." " There is no neea 
for it ;" u of it." For is superfluous in the phrase, " More than he knows 
for." u No discouragement for the authors to proceed 5" " to the authors/- 
&c. It was perfectly m compliance to some persons 5" " with." u The wisest 
princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to 
their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel 5" " diminution of," and " derogation 
from." 

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. " Reconciling himself 
with the king." " Those things which have the greatest resemblance with 
each other, frequently differ the most." " That swch rejection should be con- 
sonant with our common nature." " Conformable with," &c. 'The history 
of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it 
should be " to," instead of " with." " It is a use that, perhaps, I should not 
have thought on 5" " thought of." u A greater quantity may be taken from 
the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it 3" " in it." u Intrust- 
ed to persons on whom the parliament could confide 3" "in whom." "He 
was made much on at Argos ;" " much of." " If policy can prevail upon 
force 3" " over force." " I do likewise dissent with the examiner 3" "fromJ 1 

4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. " They should be in- 
formed in some parts of his character 5" " about," or " concerning." " Upon 
such occasions as fell into their cognizance 3" " under." " That variety of 
factions into which we are still engaged 5" " in m hich." " To restore myself 
into the favor 3" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repeated 
experiences ;" " by." From seems to be superfluous after forbear ; as, " He 



SYNTAX. 



169 



could not forbear from appointing the pope," &c. " A strict observance after 
times and fashions y* " of times." u The character which we may now value 
ourselves by drawing ;" u upon drawing." " Neither of them shall make me 
swerve out of the path 5" " from the path." " Ye blind guides, which strain at 
a gnat, and swallow a camel 3" it ought to be, " which strain out a gnat, or, 
take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impropriety of the prepo- 
sition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot 
be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the singular 
number j as, " Which is found among every species of liberty 5" " The opinion 
seems to gain ground among every body." 

u He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this sen- 
tence ? " You have bestowed your favor3 to the most deserving persons." 
How should this sentence be altered 1 

" Reconciling himself with the king." What inaccuracy is there in this sen- 
tence ? u They should be informed in some parts of his character." Will 
you correct this sentence ? 

4. 



r She finds a difficulty of fixing her 

mind." 
r Her sobriety is 



to 



no derogation 
her understanding." 

u There was no water, and he died 
for (1.) thirst." 

" We can fully confide on (2.) none 
but the truly good." 

u I have no occasion of his services." 
' Many have proiiied from good ad- 
vice." 

** Many ridiculous practices have been 
brought in vogue." 

1 The error was occasioned by com- 
pliance to earnest entreaty." 

u This is a principle in unison to our 
nature." 

u We should entertain no prejudices 
to simple and rustic persons." 

f* They are at present resolved of do- 
ing their duty." 

1 That boy is known under the name 
of the idler." 

u Thoygh conformable with custom, 
it is not warrantable." 

r This remark is founded in truth." 

" His parents think on him and his 
improvements, with pleasure and 
hope." 

u His excuse was admitted of by (3.) 
his master." 

u What went ye out for to see ?" 

" There appears to have been a mill- 
ion men brought into the field." 

u His present was accepted of by his 
friends." 

" More than a thousand of men were 
destroyed." 

'* It is my request that he will be par- 
ticular in speaking to the follow- 
ing pomts." 

"The Saxons reduced the greater 



part of Britain to their own 
power." 

" He lives opposite the royal ex 
change." 

" Their house is situated to the north 
east side of the road." 

" The performance was approved of 
by all who understood it." 

u He was accused with having aeted 
unfairly. 7 '' 

" She has an abhorrence to all deceit- 
ful conduct." 

" They were some distance (4.) from 
home, when the accident hap- 
pened." 

11 His deportment was adapted for 
conciliating regard." 

u My father writes me very frequent- 

" Their conduct was agreeable with 
their profession." 

" We went leisurely above stairs, and 
came hastily below. We shall 
write up stairs this forenoon, and 
down stairs in the afternoon." 
" The politeness of the world has 
the same resemblance with benev- 
olence, that the shadow has with 
its substance." 

" He had a taste of such studies, and 
pursued them earnestly." 

" When we have had a true taste for 
the pleasures of virtue, we can 
have no relish for those of vice." 

u How happy it is to know how to 
live at times by one's self, to leave 
one's self in regret, to find one's 
self again with pleasure ! Tho 
world is then less necessary for 
us." 

" Civility makes its way among every 
kind of persons." 



(i.) « o/.» 



(2.) « in. 

15 



•)"ty.' 



<4.)K. XXII. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they fol- 
low verbs and participles of motion ; as, u 1 went to London }" " 1 am going 
to town" Hut the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to be , 
as, " ] have been at London j" " I was at the place appointed ;" " I shall be 
at Paris." We likewise say, " He touched, arrived at any place." The 
preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns j as, u He lives 
in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But beiore villages, single houses-, 
and cities which are in distant countries, ctt is used j as, " He lives at Hack- 
ney j" '* He resides at Montpellier." 

It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another, wheth- 
er the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before them 
boih. We may say, " They were jealous of one another j w or, " They were 
jealous one of another •" but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions ; as, excepting, respecting, 
touching, concerning, according. " They were all in fault except or excepting 
him." 

How is the preposition to used with nouns of place ? Give an example. 
Are participles ever used as prepositions 1 Give an example. 

5. 
u I have been to London, after having are going for Liverpool. They 

resided a year at France j and I intend to reside some time m 

now live at Islington." Ireland." 

44 They have just landed in Hull, and 

HTJLE XI, 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XVIII. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood 
and tense 7 and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its 
utility. " If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he will 
succeed ;" " if he prefers." " To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is in- 
human 5 and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and to want 
compassion." " The parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued 
the same day;" '* and ivas prorogued." "His wealth and him bid adieu to 
each other 5" " and he." " He entreated us, my comrade and I, to live har- 
moniously ;" " comrade and me." u My sister and her were on good terms ;" 
** and she." u We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, 
and are searching after those which are out of our reach ;" it ought to be, 
M and search after." 

" His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct this sen- 
tence, and give the rule for Conjunctions ? 

" Professing regard, and to act (1.) proceeding temperately in the 

dilTerently, discover a base mind." pursuit of them, is the besi way 

44 Did he not tell me his fault, and en- to ensure success." 

troated me to forgive him ?" " Between him and I there is some 

" My brother and him are tolerable disparity of years ; but none be 

grammarians." tween him and she." 

" If he understand the subject, and " By forming themselves on fantastic 

attends to it industriously, he can models, and ready to vie with one 

scarcely fail of success." another in the reigning follies, the 

"You and us enjoy many privileges." young begin with being ridiculous. 

a She and him are very unhappily and end with being vicious ana 

connected." immoral." 

" To be moderate in our views, and 

1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods 

and lenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, it 

{\.\ •* acting," or, u 7b profess regard, and to act,* tea. 






SYNTAX. 171 

not always, be repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be done, under 
the construction to which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives temperate- 
ly, and he should live temperately j" " He may return, but he will not contin- 
ue ;" " She was proud, though she is now humble :" but it is obvious, that, in 
such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by this means, the 
latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the 
preceding, as those are which come under this rule. When, in the progress 
of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, cr from the 
negative to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed ; as, 
" He is rich, but he is not respectable." There appears to be, in general, 
equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming the subject, when the 
course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The fol- 
lowing; sentences may therefore be improved : " Anger glances into the breast 
of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools j" "but rests oniy 3" or, 
" but it loill rest only." " Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired 
also, if her worth were really known 5" " and she would." " The world be- 
gins to recede, and will soon disappear ;" " and it will." 

Do conjunctions ever connect different moods and tenses of verbs ? What 
case must generally be repeated in such instances \ Give an example. 

1. 

r We have met with many disappoint- great riches, but do not command 

ments ; and, if life continue, shall esteem." 

(1.) probabl}' meet with many "Our seasons of improvement are 
more." short, and, whether used or not, 

Rank may confer influence, but will will soon pass away." 

(2.) not necessarily produce vir- "He might have been happy ; and is 
tue." now (3.) fully convinced of it." 

He does not want courage, but is " Learning strengthens the mind, and, 
defective in sensibility. if properly applied, will improve 

These people have indeed acquired our morals too." 

RULE XXVIII, 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar 
RULE XLX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub 
junctive, mood after them. It is a general rule, thai 
when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the 
subjunctive ought to be used; as, " If I were to write, 
he would not regard it ;" " He will not be par 
doned, unless he repent " 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
require the indicative mood. "As virtue advances, 
so vice recedes ;" " He is healthy, because he is tem- 
perate." 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, &c, generally requlty 
the subjunctive mood after them 5 as, " If thou be afflicted, repine not •," 
" lliough he slay me, yet will I trust in him f " He cannot be clean, unless 
he wash himself;" " No power, except it were given from above ;" " Whether 
it were I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, when the sen- 
tence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative 5" as, " Though he is poor, 
he is contented." 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the dis 

(1.) « hh $halL» (2.) " it wiiL n (3.) " and now ht *»." 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods : " Tliough he were 
divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme au- 
thority j tliough he were endued wiih supernatural powers, and could, there- 
fore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles ; yet, in compli- 
ance with the way in which human nature and reasonable creatures arc usual- 
ly wrought upon, he reasoned. 7 ' That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and 
endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted, 
as not admitting the least doubt} they would therefore have been better ex- 
pressed in the indicative mood : " Though he was divinely inspired} though 
he was endued witn supernatural powers." The subjunctive is used in the like 
improper manner, in the following example : " 7 hough he were a son, yet 
learned he obedience, by the things which he suffered." But, in a similar pas- 
sage, the indicative, with great propriety, is employed to the same purpose 5 
" Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 

What conjunctions generally require the subjunctive mood after them ? 



or not, I can- 



u Though he were her friend, he did 
not attempt to justify her conduct." 
"Whether he improve 

not determine." 
u Tliough the fact be extraordinary, it 

certainly did happen." 
" Remember what thou wert, and be 

(3.) humble." 
" O that his heart was tender, and 
susceptible of the woes of others '" 
"Shall then this verse to 
pretend, 

Thou wert my guide, philosopher, 
and friend ?" 



future ago 



"If he acquires (1.) riches, they will 
corrupt his mind, and be useless 
to others." 

" Though he urges me yet more ear- 
nestly, I shall not comply unless 
he advances more forefbie rea- 
sons." 

" I shall walk in the fields to-day, un- 
less it rains." 

" As the governess were (2.) present, 
the children behaved properly." 

"She disapproved the measure, be- 
cause ii were very improper." 

" Though he be high, he hath respect 
to the lowly." 

1. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require 
the subjunctive mood 5 as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty 5" " Re- 

5 rove not a. seorner, lest he hate thee 5" u Take heed that thou speak not to 
acob." 
If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive 
mood 5 as, " If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke 5" u . If he be but 
discreet, he will succeed." Bui the indicative ought to be used, on this occa- 
sion, when future time is not signified ; as, " If, in this expression, he does but 
jest, no ofTeuce should be taken : w " If she is but sincere, I am happy." The 
same distinction applies to the following forms of expression : " If The do sub- 
mit, it will be from necessity 5" " Though he does submit, he is not convinced 5" 
" If thou do not reward this service, he will be discouraged }" " If thou dost 
heartily forgive him, endeavor to forget the offence." 

When do lest and that require the subjunctive mood after them 1 When 
docs if require the subjunctive ? When the indicative '/ 

1. 

" Despise not any condition, lest it " If he do but speak to display his 
liappens to be your own." abilities, he is unworthy of attcn- 



heed 



not 



" Let him that is sanguine take 
lest he miscarries. ," 

" Take care that thou breakest 
any of the established rules." 

" If he does but (-L) intimate his de- 
sire, it will be sufficient to produce 
obedience." 

'At the time of his return, if he is but 
expert in the business, he will find 
employment." 



tion. 77 

If he be but in health, I am content." 

If he does promise, he will certainly 
perform. " 

Though he do praise her, it is only 
for ner beauty." 

If thou dost net forgive, perhaps 
thou wilt not be forgiven." 

If thou do sincerely believe the 
truths of religion, act according- 
ly. 7 ' 



(I.) 464, 



(2.) 465. 



(3.) Impera. 



(4.) 654. 



SYNTAX. 173 

2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed or understood, 
seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood : " So much 
she dreaded his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not lament 5" " Ho 
teasoned so artfully, that his friends would listen, and think [that] he were not 
wrong." 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? 

2. 
* His confused behavior made it rea- rebuke, that he dare not make any 

sonable to suppose that he were reply." 

guilty." " His apology was so plausible, that 

u He is so conscious of deserving the many befriended him, and thought 

he were innocent." 

3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive 
moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a 
great impropriety 3 as in these instances : " //' there be but one body of legis- 
lators, it is no better than a tyranny j if there are only two, there will want a 
casting voice." " If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone 
astray," &c. 

May the same conjunction have both the subjunctive aad indicative moods 
after it" in the same sentence ? Give an example of tiiis improprietv. 

3. 
*■ If one man prefer a life of industry, u No one engages in that business, un- 
it is because he has an idea of less he aim at reputation, or hopes 
comfort in wealth 3 if another pre- for some singular advantage." 
fers a life of gayety, it is from a u Though the design be laudable, and 
like idea concerning pleasure." is favorable to~our interest, it will 

involve much anxiety and labor." 

4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language, have 
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the 
sentence, and made it regular 5 and it is probable, that this has generally beer, 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words noAv in use ; which 
will appear from the following examples : " We shall overtake him, though 
he run ;" that is, u though he should run." " Unless he act prudently, he -will 
not accomplish his purpose ;" that is, " unless he sJiall act prudently." " If 
he succeed, and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;" that is, " If 
he should succeed, and should obtain his end." These remarks and exam- 
ples are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
forms of expression 5 and to enable the student to examine the propriety of 
using them, by tracing the words in question to their proper origin and ancient 
connections. But it is necessary to be more particular on this subject, and 
therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the sub- 
junctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying the 
terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will 
be evident from the following examples : " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be 
thankful." u Unless he study more closely, he will never be learned." Some 
writers, however, would express these sentiments without those variations ; 
" If thou prosperest," &c. ; " Unless he studies/ 7 &c. ; and, as there is great 
diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few re- 
marks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different 
forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of ter- 
mination are necessary, when these two circumstances concur : 1st, When 
the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature; and, 2d, When the verb 
has a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both these circum- 
stances will be found to unite : " If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself." 
" He has a hard heart ; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffer." u He 
will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate." u Whether he succeed 
or not, his intention is laudable." " If he be not prosperous, he will not re- 
pine " " If a man smite his servant, and he die, 11 &c. Exod. xxi. 20. In all 
these examples, the things signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to 
future time. But in the instance's which follow, future time is not referred to : 
15* 



■I 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and therefore a different construction takes place ; " If thou livest virtuously, 
thou art happy." " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless." 
" If he allows the excellence of Virtue, he does not regard her precepts." 
" Though lie seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived us." " Whether 
virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any dispute." " If thou be- 
lievest with all thy heart, thou mayest," &r,c. Acts viii. 37. There are many 
sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which neither contingency nor futun- 
ty is denoted j as, " Though he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds him 
in virtue." " I have no doubt of his principles j but if he believes the truths of 
religion, he does not act according to them." 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurky are necessary, as 
tests of the propriet} r of altering the terminations, will be evident, by inspect- 
ing the following examples ; which show that there are instances in which nei- 
ther of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the three examples fol 
lowing, contingency is denoted, but not futurity : " If he thinks as he speaks, 
he may safely be trusted." " If he is now disposed to it, I will perform tho 
operation." " He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me." In the following 
sentences, futurity is signified, but not contingency. " As soon as the sun 
sets, it will be cooler." " As the autumn advances, these birds will gradually 
emigrate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules above 
mentioned may be extended to assert, that, in cases wherein contingency and 
futurity do not concur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of 
present time, or to vary its form or termination. The verb would then bo hi 
the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. If these rules, 
which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indic- 
ative moods in this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we should 
have, on this point, a principle of decision simple and precise, and readily ap- 
plicable to every case that might occur. It will, doubtless, sometimes happen, 
that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, a strict adherence 
to grammatical rules would render the language stiff and formal 3 but when 
cases of this sort occur, it is better to give the expression a different turn, than 
violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. 

Has the present tense of the subjunctive mood a future signification ? How 
is this effected 1 What two circumstances should concur to render necessary 
this change of termination ? 

Should the termination be changed when futurity and contingency do not 
concur ? What mood or form will the verb then be in ? 

4. 
" Unless he Learns faster, he will be Persevere until thou gainest the 

no scholar." summit : there, all is order, beauty 

" Though he falls, he shall not be ut- and pleasure." 

terly cast down." " If Charlotte desire to gain esteem 

" On condition that he comes, I will and love, she does not employ the 

consent to stay." proper means." 

" However that affair terminates, (1.) " Unless the accountant deceive me, 

my conduct will be unimpeacha- my estate is considerably improv- 

ble." ed." 

"If virtue rewards us not so soon as " Though self-government produce 

we desire, the payment will be some uneasiness, it is light when 

made with interest." compared with the pain of vicious 

" Till repentance composes his mind, indulgence." 

he will be a stranger to peace." " Whether he think as he speaks, time 
" Whether he confesses or not, the will discover." 

truth will certainly be discover- " If thou censure uncharitably, thou 

ed." desen est no favor." 

" If thou censurest uncharitably, thou " Though "Virtue appear severe, she 

wilt be entitled to no favor!" is truly amiable." 

4 Though, at times, the ascent to the " Though success be very doubtful, it 

temple of virtue appears steep is proper that he endeavors to 

and craggy, be not discouraged. succeed." 

(].) Or, " may tamvmtey 









SYNTAX. 17ft 

5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunctive 
mood, it seems proper to make a few observations. Some writers express 
themselves in the perfect tense as follows : *' If thou have determined; we must 
submit : 77 " Unless he have consented, the writing" will be void : 77 but we be 
lieve that few authors of critical sagacity write in this maimer. The proper 
form seems to be, " If thou hast determined/ 7 " Unless he lias consented/ 7 
&c, conformably to what we generally meet with in the Bible : " I have sur- 
named thee, though thou liast not known me. 77 Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What is 
the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath gained/ 7 &c. Job xxvii. 8. See 
also Acts xxviii. 4. 

" If thou have determined, we must submit. 77 How should this sentence be 
altered 1 

5. 
™ If thou have promised, be faithful to submission, he is too generous to 

thy engagement. 77 exact it. 77 

" Though he have proved his right to " Unless he have improved, he is un- 
fit for the office. 77 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with such ex- 
pressions as these 5 " If thou had applied thyself diligently, thou wouldst have 
reaped the advantage / 7 " Unless thou shall speak the whole truth, we can- 
not determine / 7 " If thou will undertake the business, there is little doubt of 
success. 77 This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not appear to be 
warranted by the general practice of correct writers. They should be, hadst, 
shall and wilt : and we find them used in this form, in the sacred Scriptures : 
" If thou /iacfo£ -known/ 7 &c. Luke xix. 47. u If thou hadst been here/ 7 &c. 
John xi. 21. " If thou wilt, thou canst make me clean. 77 Matt. viii. 2. See, 
also, 2 Sam. ii. 27 5 Matt. xvii. 4. 

u If thou wilt undertake the business, there is little doubt of success/ 7 Is this 
mode of expression warranted by good authority 1 How should it be altered ? 

6. 

" If thou had succeeded, perhaps thou of the measure, we shall not de- 

wouldst not be the happier for sire thy support. 77 

it. 77 " Though thou will not acknowledge, 

" Unless thou shall see the propriety thou canst not deny the fact. 77 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive 
mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination 5 as, u If thou loved him 
truly, thou wouldst obey him /'' " Though thou did conform, thou hast gained 
nothing by it. 77 Tiiis variation, however, appears to be improper. Our pres- 
ent version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to as a good grammatical 
authority in points of this nature, decides against it : " If thou knewest the 

r'ft/ 7 &z.c. John iv. 10. " If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory ? 77 &c. 
Cor. iv. 7. See also Dan. v. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the form 
of the verb to be, when used subjunctively in the imperfect tense, is indeed 
very considerably and properly varied from that which it has in the imperfect 
of the indicative mood 5 as the learner will perceive by turning to the con- 
jugation of that verb. 

Is the second person singular of the imperfect ever varied in its termination 
in the subjunctive mood ? Will you give an example ? Is this variation 
proper ? 

7. 
"If thou gave liberally, thou wilt re- " Was he ever so great and opulent, 

ceive a liberal reward.' 7 this conduct would debase him. 77 

" Though thou did injure him, he har- " Was I to enumerate all her virtues, 

bors no resentment. 77 it would look like flattery. 77 

" It would be well, if the report was " Though I was perfect, yet would 1 

only the misrepresentation of her m not presume. 77 

enemies. 77 

8. It may not be superfluous also to observe, that the auxiliaries of the po- 
tential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination 
of the secoud person singular. We properly say, " If thou mayst or caiist go /' 
" Thmieli thou mightst nVe •/' " Unless thou coiddst read /' " Tf thou wouldst 



17G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

learn ;"— and not " If thou may or can go," &c. It is sufficient, on this point, 
to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth : — " If thou shouldst go ;" 
Johnson. " If thou mayst, mightst, or coaldst love j" Lowth. Some authors 
think that, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these 
auxiliaries should be varied ; as, " I advise thee, that thou may beware }" 
" He checked thee, tloxt thou shoiUd not presume ;" but there does not appear 
to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of " condition, doubt, 
contingency/ 7 &.c. does not warrant a change in the form of these auxiliaries, 
why should they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The transla- 
tors of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction contended 
for. u Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king." Neh. vi. 6. 
" There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared." rs. exxx. 4. 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, that, with re- 
spect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when the circumstances 
of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of 
the second and third persons singular ; that without the concurrence of thoso 
circumstances, the terminations should not be altered ; and that the verb and 
the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, un- 
dergo no alterations whatever, except the imperfect Gf the verb to be, whicn, in 
cases denoting - contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number. 
After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural for 
the student to inquire, What is the extent of the subjunctive mood ? Some 
grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs 
generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity, and to the 
imperfect tense of the verb to be, when it denotes contingency, &c. ; because 
in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation 5 and they suppose 
that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It is the 
opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, besides the 
two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past and the two future tenses 
are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency or uncertainty, 
though they have not any change of termination 5 and that, when contingency 
is not signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative 
mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They think that the definition 
and nature of the subjunctive mood have no reference to change of termina- 
tion, but that they refer merely to the manner of the being, action, or passion 
signified by the verb 5 and that the subjunctive mood may as properly exist 
without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, which has no termina- 
tions different from those of the indicative. The decision of this point may 
not, by some grammarians, be thought of much consequence. But the rules 
which ascertain the propriety of varying or not varying the terminations 
of the verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may be well 
observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the nature and limits of 
the subjunctive mood.* 

Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
change the termination of the second person singular ? When is it proper to 
vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the present 
tense ? Do the verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, and the auxiliaries of 
the first future, undergo any alteration? What exception? What is the 
opinion of some grammarians in regard to the extent of the subjunctive mood 1 
What is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which of these opinions does 
the author concur ? 

8. 
" If thou may share in his labors, be " Unless thou can fairly support the 
thankful, and do it cheerfully." cause, give it up honorably." 

* Wc have Mtated, for the student's information, the different opinions of grammarians, respec'ingthe English 
subjunctive mood : First, that which supposes there is no such mood in our language ; Secondly, that which 
extends it no farther than the variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we have adopted, and 
explained at large, and which, in general, corresponds with the views of the most approved writers on English 
grammar. We may add a Fourth opinion, which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This 
opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, that of assigning to the first 
tense of the subjunctive, two forms — 1st, that which simply denotes contingency ; as, " If he desires it, I will 
perform the operation ;" that is, if he now desires it: 2dly, that which denotes both contingency and futurity ;aa, 
" If he desire it, I will perform the operation ;" that is, " If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory 
of the subjunctive mood claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the mood* consistent and regular; 
of being more conformable than any other to the definition of the subjunctive, and of not referring to the 
indicative mood forms of expression, which ill accord with its simplicity and nature Perhaps this theory 
will bear a strict examination. 



SYNTAX. 



177 



" Though thou might have foreseen " Unless thou should make a timely 

the danger, thou csuldst not have retreat, the danger will be una- 

avoidea it." voidable." 

" If thou could convince him, -he " I have labored and wearied myself, 

would not act accordingly." that thou may be at ease." 

" If thou would improve in knowl- " He enlarged on those dangers, that 

edge, be diligent." thou should avoid them." 

9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to them 
either expressed or understood j as, 

1st. Though — yet, nevertheless ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he 
became poor ," " Though powerful, he was meek." 

2d. Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell." 

3d. Either — or ; as, " I will either send it, or bring it myself." 

4th Neither — nor ; as, " Neither he nor I am able to compass it." 

5th. As — as ; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, " She is as amiable as hor 
sister 3 and as much respected." 

6th. jls — so -, expressing a comparison of equality ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy 
seed be." 

7th. As — so; expressing a comparison of quality j as, " As the one dieth, so dietb 
the other f\ " As he reads, they read." 

8th. -So — as; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality ; as, " To see th 
glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 

9th. So — as; with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison of quanti- 
ty ; as, " Pompey was not so great a general as Caesar, nor so great a man." 

10th. So — that ; expressing a consequence ; as, " He was so fatigued, that ho 
could scarcely move." 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal propri- 
ety. " The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive, 
assented to the measure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have been 
Detter5 but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of 
the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. 

Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong 
ing to them ? Give examples. 

9. 
' Neither the cold or the fervid, but 

characters uniformly warm, are 

formed for friendship." 
44 They are both praiseworthy, and 

one is equally (1.) deserving as 

the other." 
44 He is not as diligent and learned as 

his brother." 



44 The dog in the manger would not 
eat the hay himself, nor suffer the 
ox to eat it." 

" As far as I am able to judge, the 
book is well written." 

" We should faithfully perform the 
trust committed to us, or ingen- 
uously relinquish the charge." 
44 1 will present it to him myself, or u He is not as eminent, and as much 



esteemed, as he thinks himself to 
be." 

" The work is a dull performance, 
and is neither capable of pleasing 
(3.) the understanding, or the im- 
agination." 

" There is no condition so secure, as 
cannot admit of change." 

" This is an event which nobody pre- 
sumes upon, or is so sanguine to 
hope for." 

44 We are generally pleased with any 
little accomplishments of body of 
mind." 

10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The 
following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain, 
as that they require a great deal of examination f " It should be, " that they 
require/' &c. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend 



direct it to be given to him. 
" Neither despise or oppose what thou 

dost not understand." 
" The house is not as commodious as 

we expected it would be." 
" I must, however, be so candid to 

own I have been mistaken." 
"■ There was something so amiable, 

and yet so piercing in his look, as 

(2.) affected me at once with love 

and terror." 

— " I gained a son ; 

And such a son as all men hailed me 
happy." 



(1.) For " equally," read n as. 



(2.) " tliat it." 



(3.) " ruxlha the.'" 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

some ill consequences 3 it ought to be, " so sanguine as not to apprehend/' 
&c. 5 or, " no man, how sanguine soever, who did not/' &c. u To trust in him 
is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but the gate of 
paradise." In both of these instances, but should be tlian. u We should suffi- 
ciently weigh the objects of our hope 3 whether they are such as we may 
reasonably expect from them what they propose," &c It ought to be, " that 
we may reasonably," &c. ** The duke had not behaved w r ith that loyalty as 
he ought to have done ;" " with which he ought." " In the order as they lie 
in his preface 3" it should be, " in order as they lie ;" or, " in the order in 
which they lie." " Such sharp replies that cost him his life 3" "as cost," &c. 
" If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly painted 3" u such a 
scarecrow , v &c. " 1 wish I could do that justice to his memory ; to oblige the 
painters," &c. 5 " do such justice as to oblige," &c. 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? What is said 
of sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? Give an exam- 
ple. When has as the force of a relative pronoun ? (1.) Give an example. 

There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form 
of a verb. " Were there no difference, there would be no choice.'' 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes 
made use of; as, " Had he done this, he had escaped 3" "Had the limitations on 
the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made 
him regard as sacred the boundaries of the constitution." The sentence in ths 
common form would have read thus : " If the limitations on the prerogative had 
been," &x. "his integrity would have made him regard," &c. 

The particle 05, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has the force of a 
relative pronoun ; as," Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own 
conduct 3" which is equivalent to, " Let them who presume," &c. But when used 
by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equivalent to not 
loWistanding. The words for all that seem to be too low. w The word was in the 
mouth of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret." 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much better in the fol- 
lowing sentence : " it cannot he otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs 
from that of every other language." 

The word except is far preferable to other than. " It admitted of no effectual cure 
other than amputation." Except is also to be preferred to all but. " They were 
nappy, all but the stranger." In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is 
improperly omitted : " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine to hope." " I 
must, however, be so just to own." 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood ; as, " I beg you 
would come to me ;" " See thou do it not 3" instead of" that you would," " that 
thou do." But in the following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction were 
much better inserted : " Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to pos- 
terity." It should be, " Yet it is just that the memory," &c. 

10. 

" Be ready to succor such persons who "He gained nothing further by his 

(2.) need thy assistance." speech, but only (6.) to be com- 

" The matter was no sooner proposed, mended for his eloquence." 

but (3.) he privately withdrew to "He has little more of the scholar 

consider it." besides the name." 

He lias too much sense and prudence " He has little of the scholar than the 

than to become a dupe to such name." 

artifices." " They had no sooner risen, but 
u It is not sufficient tiiat our conduct, they applied themselves to their 

as far as it respects others, appears studies." 

to be unexceptionable." " From no other institution, besides 
" The resolution was not the less fixed, the admirable one of juries, could 

that (4.) the secret was yet com- so great a benefit be expected." 

municated to very few." u Those savage people seemed to 
" He opposed the most remarkable have no other element but war." 

corruptions of the church of Rome, "Such men that act treacherously 

so (5.) as that his doctrines were ought to be avoided." 



mbraeed by great numbers.' 



(I ,) 656. (2,) " as. " (3.) *' thai j." (4.) " though." (5.) « and on thu account." (6.) " ea xpt » 



SYNTAX. 179 

" Germany ran the same risk as Italy " No errors are so trivial, but they (I.) 
had done." deserve to be corrected." 

RULE XXIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XX. 

When the qualities of different things are compared, 
the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the con- 
junction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is 
governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or 
understood ; as, " Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, 
" than I am." " They loved him more than me ;" 
that is, "more than they loved me." "The senti- 
ment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
Solomon than him ;" that is, " than by him." 

u The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as well 
as in some other forms, may be discovered; by supplying the words that are 
not expressed 5 which will be evident from the following instances of erroneous 
construction : " He can read better than me." " He is as good as her." 
" Whether I bo present or no." " Who did this ? Me." By supplying the 
words understood, iu each of these phrases, their impropriety and governing 
rule will appear ; as, " better than I can read j" " as good as she is 3" " pres- 
ent or not present ;" " I did it." 

" Thou art wiser than L" Will you parse /, and repeat the rule for it ? 

" In some respects, we have had as " They know how to write as well as 

many advantages as them 5 but in him ; but he is a much better gram- 

the article of a good library, they marian than them." 

have had a greater privilege than u Though she is not so learned as b?m, 

us." she is as much beloved and re- 

"The undertaking was much better spected." 

executed by his brother than he." " These people, though they possess 

" They are much greater gainers than more shining qualities, are not so 

ine by this unexpected event." proud as him, nor so vain as her." 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed ; a 
number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learnor : 
w Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death." " She suffers hourly 
more than me." "We contributed a third, more than the Dutch, who were 
obliged to the same proportion more than us." u King Charles, and, more 
than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new 
schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the 
r eception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy 
to bear." " It was not the work of so eminent an author as him to whom it 
was first imputed." " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty 5 but a fool's 
vvrath is heavier than them both." " If the kin^ give us leave, we may per- 
ibrm the office as well as them that do." In these passages, it ought to be, 
" 7, we, lie, they," respectively. 

When the relative who immediately follows tlian, it seems to form an ex- 
ception to the 29th Rule ; for, in that connection, the relative must be hi the 
objective case ; as, " Alfred, titan wham a greater king never reigned," &c. 
a Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat," &c. It is re- 
markable that, in such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would 
be in the nominative case 5 as, "A greater king never reigned than he,'* thai 
is, " than he was." " Beelzebub, than he," &c, that is, " than he sat." The 
phrase tlian whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. 

" She suffers hourly more than me." Will you correct this sentence, and 
explain why it is wrong ? 

Tl.) "that they do not* 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1, 

'* Who betrayed her companion 1" " Whether he will be learned or no, 

" Not me." must depend on his application." 

° Who revealed the secrets he ought " Charles XII. of Sweden, than who 

to have concealed 1" "Not Mm." (1.) a more courageous person 

u Who related falsehoods to screen never lived, appears to have been 

herself, and to bring- an odium destitute of the tender sensibili- 

upon others?" "Not me; it was ties of nature." 

her." u Salmasius (a more learned man than 

u There is but one in fault ; and that him has seldom appeared) was not 

is me." happy at the close of life." 

B.X7X.IS XXX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XXL 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
ideas in a few ivords, an ellipsis, or omission of some 
words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, 
" He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and 
he was a good man," we make use of the ellipsis, and 
say, " He was a learned, wise and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety \ 
they must be expressed. In the sentence, " We are- 
apt to love who love us," the word them should be 
supplied. " A beautiful field and trees," is not 
proper language; it should be "Beautiful fields and 
trees," or " A beautiful field and fine*trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical 5 some exam- 
ples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech. 

". I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will you correct this sen- 
tence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX, by which the correction is 
made? 

"I gladly shunned (2.) who gladly fell a victim to the madness of the 

fled from me." people, truth, virtue, religion, fell 

" And this is (3.) it men mean by dis- with him." (5.) 

tributive justice, and is properly " The fear of death, nor hope of life, 
termed equity." could make him submit to a dis- 

" His honor, interest, religion were honest action." (6.) 

all embarked in this undertaking." " An elegant house and furniture were, 
(4.) by this event, irrecoverably lost 

" When so good a man as Socrates to the owner." (7.) 

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used: " A man, woman, and child 3" 
that is, " a man, a woman, and a child." " A house and garden 5" that is, " a 
house and a garden." " The sun and moon ;" that is, " the sun and the 
moon." " The day and hour ;" that is, " the day and the hour." In all these 
instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes 
unnecessary. There is, however, an exception to this observation, when some 
peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the following sentence : " Not 
only the year, but the day and the hour." In this case, the ellipsis of the last 
article would be improper. When a different form of the article is requisite, 
the article is also properly repeated 3 as, " a house and an orchard," instead 
of u a house and orchard." 

(\.) "whom,"— Note XX. (£48.) (2.) "him who" (3.) " Viat which" (4.) Insert " Ai»" 

twice more, (5.) " and " twice. (6.) u Neither— nor" (7. 1 " much costly." 



SYNTAX. 



181 



Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the ai tide ? 
repeat the article in each of these instances ? 

1. 



Is it necessary to 



with an unimproved, or with a 

corrupted, mind." 
" The more I see of his conduct, I like 

him better." 
" It is not only the duty, but interest, 

of young persons to be studious 

and diligent." 



11 These rules are addressed to none 
but the intelligent and the (1.) at- 
tentive." 

" The gay and the pleasing are, some- 
times, the most insidious, and the 
most dangerous companions." 

u Old age will prove a joyless and a 
dreary season, if we arrive at it 

2. The noun is frequently omittedlh the following manner : " The laws of 
God and man ;" that is, " The laws of God and the laws of man." In some 
very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used 5 as, " Christ, the 
power of God, and the wisdom of God 5" which is more emphatical than 
" Christ the power and wisdom of God." 

Will you give an example of the omission of the noun ? Should this ellipsis 
always be used 1 

2. 
" These counsels were the dictates of 

virtue, and the dictates (2.) of true 

honor." 
"Avarice and cunning may acquire 

an estate, but avarice and cunning 

cannot gain friends.' 7 (3.) 
'•'A taste for useful knowledge will 

provide for us a great and noble 

3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner : " A de- 
lightful garden and orchard j 77 that is, " A delightful garden and a delightful 
orchard. 77 " A little man and woman 3" that is, " a little man and a little 
woman. 77 In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought to have 
exactly the same signification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the 
latter substantive as t© the former 3 otherwise the ellipsis should not be ad- 
mitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers •, 
as, " A magnificent house and gardens. 77 In this case it is better to use 
another adjective ; as, " A magnificent house, and fine gardens. 77 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective ? What rule is 
to be observed in the use of this ellipsis ? 

3. 
f His crimes had brought him into u That species of commerce will pro- 
extreme distress and extreme per- duce great gain or loss. (10.) 



entertainment, when others leave 
us. 77 (4.) 

"Without firmness, nothing that is 
great can be undertaken 5 that is 
difficult or hazardous, can be ac- 
complished. 77 (5.) 

"The anxious man is the votary of rich- 
es 5 the negligent of pleasure."(6.) 



plexity. 77 (7.) 

" He has an affectionate brother, and 
an affectionate sister, and they 
live in great harmony. 77 (8.) 

r We must guard against too great se- 
verity, and facility of manners. 77 (9.) 

u We should often recollect what the 
wisest men have said and written 



" Many days, and even weeks, pass 
away unimproved. 77 (10.) 

" This wonderful action struck the be- 
holders with exceeding (11.) as- 
tonishment. 77 (10.) 

" The people of this country possess 
a healthy climate and soil. 77 (9.) 

"They enjoy also a free constitution 
and laws." (10.) 



concerning human happiness and 
vanity. 77 (10.) 

4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : u I love and fear him ;' 7 
that is, " I love him, and I fear him. 77 " My house and lands j' 7 that is, " My 
house, and my lands. 77 In these instances, the ellipsis may take place with 
propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be 
used j as, a His friends and his foes j" " My sons and my daughters.' 7 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually 
omitted ; as, " This is the man they love, 77 instead of, " This is the man who?n 



(1.) Reject "Me." (2.) 

(4.) Insert " entertainments." 
live. (S.) Reject two words* 



' virtue and of true." 
(5.) Insert " nothing." 
(9.) Insert two words. 



(3.) Insert " they" in the place of two nouns. 
(6.) Insert " man, that." (7.) Reject an acljec- 
(10.) Insert an adjective. (1 1.) " exceedingly." 

(I 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

they love}" " These are the goods they bought," for " These are the goods 
which they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun ex- 
pressed ; as it is more proper to say, " The posture in which I lay," than 
" In the posture I lay 5 " The horse on which 1 rode, fell down," than " The 
horse I rode, fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence tog-ether 5 
and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other 
with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied 3 
as, " We speak that which we do know, and testify ihalwJtich we have seen." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the pronoun ? Can this ellipsis 
be properly used at all times ? 

11 His reputation and his estate were u He is not only sensible and learned, 
both lost by gaming." 11.) but is religious too." (2.) 

" This intelligence not only excited " The Chinese language contains an 
our hopes, but fears too." (2.) immense number of words 3 and 

" His conduct is not scandalous ; and who would learn them must pos 

thxt is the best can be said of it." sess a great memory." (2.) 

(3.) "By presumption and by vanity, we 

" This was the person whom calumny provoke enmity, and we incur 

had greatly abused, and sustained contempt." (I.) 

the injustice with singular pa- " In the circumstances I was at that 
tience." (2.) time, my troubles pressed heavily 

"He discovered some qualities in the upon me." (4.) 

youth of a disagreeable nature, " He had destroyed his constitution, 
and to him were wholly unac- by the very same errors that so 

countable." (2.) many have been destroyed." 

" The captain had several men died 
in his ship of the scurvy." (2.) 

5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances : " The man 
tv as old and crafty ;" that is, " The man was old, and Jhe man was crafty." 
" She was young, and beautiful, and good 5" that is, " She was young, she 
was beautiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretched, and mis- 
erable, and blind, and naked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last 
sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to pointout one property above the rest, 
that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied 3 as, " She is 
young and beautiful, and she is good." 

" I went to see and hear him," that is, " I went to see, and I went to hear 
him." In tin's instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, / 
went, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which Vs governed by it. 
Do, did, have, had, shall, will, ma?j, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of 
the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to spare the repetition of the 
verb 5 as, " He regards his word, but thou dost not j" that is, " dost not regard 
it." "-.We succeeded, but they did not 3" "did not succeed." "I have 
learned my task, but thou hast not 3" u hast not learned." "They must, and 
diey shall be punished 3" that is. " they must be punished." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb 1 Suppose we wish to 
point out one property above the rest ? How are the auxiliaries sometimes 
used ? 

5. 
" He is temperate, he is disinterested, " Perseverance in laudable pursuits 
he is benevolent 5 he is an orna- will reward all our toils, and will 

merit to his family, and a credit to produce effects beyond our calcu- 

his profession." (5.) lation." (7.) 

" Genuine virtue supposes our benev- " It is happy for us, when we can 
olence to be strengthened, and to calmly and deliberately look back 

be confirmed by principle." (6.) on the past, and can quietly antici 

pate the future." (7.) 

(-K) Reject a pronoun (2.) Insert a pronoun. (3.) " that— that." (4.) Insert two words 

(6.) Reject rix words, and nsert one. (6.) Reject two words. (7.) Reject one word. 



SYNTAX. 1&3 

' The sacrifices of virtue will not only of virtue, not only would they es- 

be rewarded hereafter, but recom- cape innumerable dangers, but 

pensed even in this life. (1.) command respect from the licen 

1 All those possessed of any office, tious themselves." (2.) 

resigned their former commis- " Charles was a man of learning", 

sion. (2.) knowledge, and benevolence, 

'* If young persons were determined and, what is still more, a true 

to conduct themselves by the rules Christian." (2.) 

6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner : " He spoke 
and acted wisely 5" that is, " He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." 

' Thrice I went and offered my service 3" that is, " Thrice I went, and thrice 
I offered my service." 
How is the ellipsis of the adverb used ? 

6. 
,l The temper of him who is always in " How a seed grows up into a tree, 
the bustle of the world, will be and the mind acts upon the body, 

often ruffled, and be often dis- are mysteries which we cannot 

turbed." (3.) explain." (5.) 

*' We often commend imprudently, as " Verily there is a reward for the 
well as censure imprudently.*' (4.) righteous. There is a God that 

judgeth in the earth." (5.) 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in tLe follow- 
ing instances : " He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings 3" that 
is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the 
public buildings." " He also went through all the streets and lanes of the 
city ;" that is, " through all the streets, and through all the lanes," &c. " He 
spoke to every man and woman there 3" that is, " to every man and to every 
woman." " This day, next month, last year 5" that is, " On this day, in the 
next month, in the last year." u The Lord do that whichseemeth him good 3" 
that is, " which seemeth to him." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the preposition and the verb ? 

7. 
H Changes are almost continually gins smiled at what they blushed 

taking place ? in men and in man- before." (5.) 

ners, in opinions and in customs, " They are now reconciled to what 
in private fortunes and public they could not formerly be 

conduct." (5.) (3.) prompted, by any considera- 

" Averse either to contradict Or blame, tions." (5. ) 

the too complaisant man goes ** Censure is the tax which a man pays 

along with the manners that pre- the public for being eminent." (5.) 

vail." (5.) " Reflect on the state of human life, 

" By this habitual indelicacy, the vir- and the society of men as mixed 

with good and with evil." (5.) 

8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They confess the power, 
wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator 5" that is, "the power, and wis- 
dom, and goodness, and love of," &c. " Though I love him, I do not flatter 
him 3" that is, u Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of a conjunction ? 

8. 

" In all stations and conditions, the " Religious persons are often unjustly 
important relations take place, of represented as persons of roman- 

masters and servants, and hus- tic character, visionary notions, 

bands and wives, and parents and unacquainted with the world, unfit 

children, and brothers and friends, to live in it." (1.) 

and citizens and subjects." (6.) "No rank, station, dignity of birth, 

'* Destitute of principle, he regarded possessions, exempt men from 

neither his family, nor his friends, contributing their share to public 

nor his reputation." (4.) utility." (7.) 

9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common : it, however, is some- 
times used } as, " Oh, pity and shame I" that is, " Oh, pity ! oh, shame !" 

(1.) Insert three words. (2.) Insert two words. (3.) Reject two words. (4.) Reject one word. 

|6.) Insert one word. (6.) Reject four words. (7.) " nor— no— nor any." 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, 
numerous examples of it might be given 5 but only a few more can be ad 
mitted here. 

In the following instance, there is a very considerable one : " He will often 
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from 
one nationj and if another, from another 5" that is, " He will often argue, 
that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one 
nation 5 and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain" 
from another nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : H Wo 
is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To let blood 5" i. e. " to let out blood." " To 
let down 5" i. e. " to let it fall or slide down." " To wa*k a mile 5" i. e. " to walk 
through the space of a mile." " To sleep all night 3" i. e. " to sleep through 
all the night." " To go a fishing 5" " To go a hunting ;" i. e. " to go on a fisn- 
ing voyage or business 5" " to go on a hunting party." " I dine at two 
o'clock";" i. e. " at two of the clock." " By sea, by land, on shore 5" i. e. 
u by the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

Whai is said of the ellipsis of the interjection ? 

9. 
" Oh, my father ! Oh, my friend ! how " Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible 
great has been my ingratitude !" have I been to your charms !" (2.) 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of ellip- 
sis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during pleasure, 
by those intrusted with the command ;" it should Be, " those persons intrusted 3" 
or, " those wlw were intrusted." u If he had read farther, he would have found 
several of his objections might have been spared ;" that is, " he would have 
found that several of his objections," &c. " There is nothing men arc more 
deficient in, than knowing their own characters 5" it ought to be, " nothing in 
which men," and, " than in knowing." " I scarcely know any part of natural 
philosophy would yield more variety and use 3" it should be, " which would 
yield," &c. " In the temper of mind he was then 3" that is, " in which he then 
was." " The little satisfaction and consistency to be found in most of the sys- 
tems of divinity I have met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of 
the Scriptures ;" it ought to be, " which are to be found," and which I have met 
with." " He desired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return 
their thanks to whom only they were due j" that is, " to him to whom," &c. 

" There is nothing men are more deficient in, than in knowing their own 
characters." Will you correct this sentence ? 

10. 
" That is a property most men have, " Most, if not all, the royal family had 

or at least may attain." (3.) quitted the place." (2.) 

" Why do ye that which is not lawful " By these happy labors, they who sow 
to do on the sabbath days V (2.) and reap, will rejoice together." 

u The show bread, which is not lawful to (4.) 

eat, but for the priests alone." (2.) 

B.ULE XXXI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 

RULE XXII. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
other : a regular and dependent construction, through- 
out, should be carefully preserved. The following sen- 
tence is, therefore, inaccurate : " He was more be- 
loved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio." It 
should be, " He was more beloved than Cinthio, but 
not so much admired." 

(1.) Reject one word. (2.) Insert one word. (3.) Insert three •words. (4.) -nsert two words. 



SYNTAX. 185 

The first example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namely, 
1 He was more beloved as Cinthio." The words more and so much are very improp- 
erly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not 
necessary to supply the latter ellipsis ; because it cannot lead to any discordant or 
improper construction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. 

As the 31st Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at the first view, 
appear to be too general to be useful. But, by ranging under it a number of sen- 
tences peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the 
true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of the 
particular rules can sufficiently explain. 

" This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be publish- 
ed ;" it ought to be, " that has been, or shall be published." " He was guided by 
interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community; "dif- 
ferent from;" or, "always different from those of the community, aud sometimes 
contrary to them." " Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even 
older than tradition ?" the words " as old," and " older," cannot have a com- 
mon regimen ; it should be, " a3 old as tradition, or even older." " It requires few 
talents to which most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which, 
at least, they may not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently mitigates and 
breaks the teeth of the common law." In this construction, the first verb is said 
to mitigate the teeth of the common law," which is an evident solecism. " Miti- 
gates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have been grammatical. 

" They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown ;" 
"grow into good language," is very improper. "There is never wanting a set of 
evil instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are 
always ready," &c. We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of 
private hatred ;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, " he acts out of 
filthy lucre." " To double her kindness and caresses of me :" the word kindness 
requires to be followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with the prep- 
osition of. " Never was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have 
done this evening :" the first and third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased,' 
" as I have done this evening," cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and to con- 
nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as ; " or suffered 
half the uneasiness that I have done ;" or else, " half so much uneasiness as I 
have suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such as 
are hardly consistent with one another: " How much soever the reformation of this 
degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more com- 
fortable prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct in the 
following form : "Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be 
despaired of," &c. 

" Oh! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty; 
in whoso hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage 
introduced by the copulative conjunction and, was not intended as a continuation 
of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, 
the relative whose should have been used instead of the possessive their; namely, 
" and whose right hand is full of gifts." 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, 
the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." There seems to be 
an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, 
performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. 
" Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," &c. would 
have been regular. 

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images 
which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is 
very proper to say, "altering and compounding those images which we have once 
received, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we cannot with propriety 
say, " retaining them into all the varieties ;" and yet, according to the manner in 
which the words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for retaining, altering, 
and compounding are participles, each of which equally refers to and governs the 
subsequent noun, thoseimages ; and that noun, again, is necessarily connected with 
the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rectified, 
by disjoining the participle retaining from the other two participles, in this way : 
"We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and 
of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision;" or, 
perhaps, better thus : " We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding 
those images which we have once received, and of fo m into all the varie- 

ties of picture and vision." 

Why is the first example tmder this rule inaccurate ? " This dedication may 
serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published. '* Will you 
point out the inaccuracies Ml this sentence, and correct them 1 
16 * 



186 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



"Several alterations and additions 
have been made to the work." (1.) 

" The first proposal was essentially 
different, and inferior to the sec- 
ond." (2.) 
He is more bold and active, but not 
so wise and studious as his com- 
panion." (3.) 

' Thou hearest the sound of the wind, 
but thou canst not tell whence it 
cometh, and. whither it goeth. 77 
Neither has he, nor any other per- 
sons, suspected so much dissimu- 
lation. 77 (4.) 

" The court of France or England 
was to have been the umpire. 77 (5.) 

" In the reign of Henry II, all foreign 
commodities were plenty in Eng- 
land.' 7 (6.) 

" There is no talent so useful towards 
success in business, or which puts 
men more out of the reach of ac- 
cidents, than that quality gener- 
ally possessed by persons of cool 
temper, and is, in common lan- 
guage, called discretion. 77 (7.) 

" The first project was to shorten dis- 
course, by cutting polysyllables 
into one. 77 (8.) 

"I shall do all I can to persuade 
others to take the same measures 
for their cure which I have. (9.) 

"The greatest masters of critical 
learning differ among one an- 
other: 7 

" Micaiah said, If thou certainty return 
in peace, then hath not the Lord 
spoken by me. 77 (10.) 

" I do not suppose, that we Britons 
want a genius, more than the 
rest of our neighbors. 77 (10.) 

u The deaf man whose ears were 
opened, and his tongue loosened, 
doubtless glorified the great Phy- 
sician. 77 (11.) 



" Groves, fields^ and meadows are, at 
any season of the year, pleasant 
to look upon 5 but never so much 
as in the opening of the spring. 77 

" The multitude rebuked them, because 
they should hold their peace. 77 

" The intentions of some of these phi- 
losophers, nay, of many, might 
and probably were good. 77 (13.) 

" It was an unsuccessfulundertaking > 
which, although it has failed, is no 
objection at all to an enterprise so 
well concerted. 77 (14.) 

" The reward is his due, and it has al- 
ready, or will hereafter be given 
to him. 77 (15.) 

" By intercourse with wise and expe 
rienced persons, who know the 
world, we may improve and rub 
off the rust of a private and retir- 
ed education. 77 (16.) 

"Sincerity is as valuable, and even 
more valuable, than knowledge. 77 

(17.) 

" No person was ever so perpkxed, or 
sustained the mortifications, as he 
has done to-day. 77 (18.) 

" The Romans gave not only the 
freedom of the city, but capacity 
for employments, to several towns 
in Gaul, Spain, and Germany. 77 
(19.) 

" Such writers have no other standard 
on which to form themselves, ex- 
cept what chances to be fashiona- 
ble and popular. 77 (20.) 

" Whatever we do secretly, shall be 
displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light. 77 (21.) 

" To the happiness of possessing a 
person of so uncommon merit, 
Boethius soon had the satisfaction 
of obtaining the highest honor his 
country could bestow. 77 






(1.) " This work has received," &c. (2.) " was inferior to the second, and— from it." (3.) " active 

than his." (4.) Insert " have." (5.) " or that of." (6.) "plentiful." (7.) Insert " more ' 

and " ivhich." (8.) " by reducing— to words of one syllable." (9.) Insert a participle. (10.) Re- 

ject one word. (11.) Insert two words, and reject one. (12.) Insert " so." (13.) Insert " liave been.' 
(14.) " tliejailwe of which is, however." (15.) Insert " been." (16.) End witb, " and nib off its rust.** 
(17.) "as knowledge, ami." (18.) Insert "been" for "done," and end with "such mortification^ 

'19.) " the inJiabitants of." (20.) Reject one word. (21.) " displayed in the clcartst." 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists ot two parts : the former teaches the true pro- 
nunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, 
pause, and tone ; the latter, the laws of versification. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 

OF ACCENT. 
Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or 
syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
from them j as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the 
letter u, and second syllable sume, which take the accent. 

OF QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing 
it. It is considered long or short. 

A vowel or syllabte is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which occa- 
sions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letter 5 ns,fdll f 
telle, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions 
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter 5 as, ant, bonnet, hunger, 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro- 
nouncing it 5 thus mate and note should be pronouneed as slowly again as 
mat and not. 

OF EMPHASIS. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we 
distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a particular stress, 
and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic 
words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a 
greater stress. 

OF PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the 
voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. 

OF TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the modu- 
ation of the voice, the notes or variations which we en ploy in the expression 
of our sentiments. 



OF VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety ol 
syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of Hie last sound of one verse to the last 
sound of another. 

What is prosody ? Ho%v much more lime does the pronunciation of 3 

What is accent? What is the quantity of a syl- long syllable occupy, than a short one ? What is ere 

lable? When is a vowel or syllable long ? When phasis? What are pauses ? What are tcnes ? What 

»hort ? Give examples of each. is versification ? What is rhyme ? 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. They are called feet, 
because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the 
verse in a measured pace. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables, and are 
reducible to eight kinds— four of two syllables, and four of three — as follows j 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee, — w A Dactyl, — w w 

An Iambus, v^ — An Amphibrach, \s — \s 

A Spondee, An Anapeest, ^ w — 

A Pyrrhic \s \s A Tribrach, v^ ^ \s 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented : as, 
'• Hateful, pettish." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented 5 as, 
" Betray, consist." 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented 5 as, "The pale 
moon." 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented 5 as, " on the tall 
tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented j as, 
" Laborer, possible." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middle 
one accented ; as, " Delightful, domestic." 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented 5 
as, " Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, " Numerable, conquerable." 

Some of these may be denominated principal feet, as pieces of poetry mav 
be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, 
Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet, because 
their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen- 
tences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different 
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double 
that of the comma ; the Colon, double that of the semicolon 5 and the Period 
double that of the colon. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very 
closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them. 

Rule 1. — With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it 
is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points 
are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom " '• Every part of nature swarms with living creatures " 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative case 
is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately 
before the verb ; as, " The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us 
to neglect the cultivation of the English language." " To be totally indif- 
ferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." 



What constitutes a poetical foot, and why is it so What is punctuation ? Wha doe3 the comma 

called? Of how many syllables do poetical feet cou- represent? th.° semicokm ? the colon ? the period? 

6ist ? How many kinds 'of feet are there, and what How is fhe comma used ? 

are they ? What is a Trochee ? au Iambus ? a Spon- " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom," 

dee? a Pyrrhic? a Dactyl ? an Amphibrach ? an Does this sentence require a pause in ii ? Will yon 

Anapaest? a Tribrach ? Will you give an example give the rule for sentences of this kind ? " The good 

of each ? Which are called principal feet ? Which taste of the present age has not allowed us to neglect 

teconrlary v Wbv ? tb»» cultivation of the English la nonage."' Does this 



PROSODY. 189 

Rule 2. — When the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence, 
is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before 
the beginning and at the end of the phrase 3 as, " I remember, with gratituae, 
his goodness to me." " His work is, in many respects, very imperfect." " It 
is, tfierefore, not much approved." But when the interruptions are sliffht and 
unimportant, the comma is better omitted 5 as, "Flattery is certainly per- 
nicious." " There is surely a pleasure in Beneficence." 

Rule 3. — When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they 
are parted by a comma 3 as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex- 
tremely." " They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade." 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns closely 
connected by a conjunction 5 as, "Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to 
each other." " Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition." If the parts 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is 
expressed 3 as, " Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or danger- 
ous incentives to evil." 

Rule 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, are 
likewise separated by commas 3 as, " Plain, honest truth wants no artificial 
covering." u David was a brave, wise, and pious man." 

But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa- 
rated by a comma 5 as, " Truth is fair and artless." " We must be wise or 
foolish : there is no medium." 

Rule 5. — Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im- 
mediately following one another, are also separated by commas ; as, " Virtue 
supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity." H In a letter we may advise, 
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the 
rule 5 as, " The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and exception. 

Rule 6.— Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must 
be separated by commas ; as, " We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." " We 
must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously." 

When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by a 
comma ; as, " Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously." 

Rule 7. — When participles are followed by something that depends upon 
them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; 
as, " The* king, approving the plan, put it in execution." " His talents, formed 
for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous." 

Rule 8. — When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence from the 
verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at each 
extremity 5 as, " They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, arrived at 
the destined place." 

Rule 9. — Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas 3 as, " My soil, give me thy heart." " I am obliged 
to you, my friends, for your many favors." 

Rule 10. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are sepa- 
rated by commas from the body of the sentence 3 as, " His father dying, he 
succeeded to the estate." " At length, their ministry performed, and race well 
run. they left the world in peace." " To confess t/ie truth, I was much in 
fault." 

Rule 11.— Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the 
same case, byway of explication or illustration, when accompanied with ad 
juncts, are set. off by commas 5 as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 

sentence admit of a pause? If so, where, and what is state what points should be placed in this sentence, 

the rule ? li I remember with gratitude his goodness and the rule for it ? State the exceptions, 

to me." Will you state how this sentence should be " The king approving the plan, Dut it in execution.** 

pointed, and the rule for it ? Will you state the ex- Will you state how this sentence should be pointed, and 

ception to this rule ? the rule for it ? 

" Plain honest truth wants no artificial covering." _ " They set out early and before the dawn of day ar- 

W ill yen state how this sentence should be pointed, rived at the destined place." Will you 9tate the rule 

and the rule for it? What exception is there to this for pointing this sentence, and others of a similar 

rule? "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in kind? 

Erosperity." Will you state how this seutence should "My son give me thy heart." What is the rule 

e pointed, and the rule for it ? State the exceptions for pointing this sentence ? 

to this ruie. " Paul the apostle of the GenMles was eminent 

» We are fearfully, wonderfully made." Will you for his zeal and knewledge." Will von state how 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eminent for his zeal and knowledge." " The butterfly, child of the summer, 
flutters in the sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, tliey are not di- 
vided ; as, li Paul the apostle." " The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent 
book." 

Rule 12. — Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, are 
for the most part distinguished by Aemma 5 as, " As the hart panteth after 
the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." " Better is a dinner of 
herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in gene- 
ral, better omitted ; as, " How much better is it to get wisdom than gold !" 

Rule 13. — When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with 
some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma ; as, 

" though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage , without o'erflowing, full." 

" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in union 
with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." 

Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, 
it is better to omit the comma before it; as, " Many states were in alliance 
with, and under the protection o/Rome." 

" The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns 
refer-to the same preposition ; as, " He was composed both under the threat- 
ening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death." 

Rule 14. — A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in 
the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma ; as, " It 
hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." " Plutarch calls lying, the vice 
of slaves." 

Rule 15. — Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit 
a comma before them ; as, " He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, 
righteous, and pious life." 

But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re- 
straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma 
should be omitted ; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex- 
pressed, but understood; as, "It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that 
his morals derived strength." 

Rule 16.— A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, or 
following another, must be distinguished by a comma; as, " To improve time 
whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." '* Very 
often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of human life, we 
make that vanity, and we increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely connected, 
the comma is unnecessary ; as, " Revelation tells us how we may attain hap- 
piness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb, with several 
words between them, those words should generally have a comma at the end 
of them ; as, i: It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one 
another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and 
succeeding one another, are also divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the ind» 
gent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, 
are humane and noble employments." 

Rule 17. — When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former 

this sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? righteous and pious life." Will you state how thu 

«' As the hart panteth after the water-brooks so doth sentence should be pointed, and the rule for i» ? Will 

my soul pant after thee." How should this sentence you state when the comma should be omitted ? Does 

be pointed, and what is the rule for it ? this rule apply to cases in which the relative is ex- 

" Though deep yrt clear though gentle yet not dull." pressed? Give an example. 

How should this sentence be pointed, and what is the "To improve time whilst we are blessed with 

rule for it? State the exception to this rule. ''It health will smooth the bed of sickness." How should 

hurts 1 man's pride to say I do not know." How this sentence be pointed, and what is the rule for it? 

should this sentence be pointed, and what is the rule Will you state the exceptions to this rule ? 
for it r " He oreaches sublimely who lives a sober 



PROSODY. 191 

zs generally separated from the latter verb by a comma ; as, " The mast ob- 
vious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." " The 
first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." 

Rule 18.— When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often 
when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by commas ; 
as, " Virtue must be formed arid supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by 
daily and repeated exertions." " Vices, like shadows, towards the evening 
of life, grow great and monstrous." 

Rule 19. — Where the verb is understood, a comma may often be properly 
introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some of the 
preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of them j 
as, " From law arises security 5 from security, curiosity 3 from curiosity, knowl- 
edge." 

Rule 20.— The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, 
lastly .once more, above all, onilu contrary, in the next place, in short, and all 
other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from 
the context by a comma. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more 
parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor 
yet so little dependent on each other as those which are distinguished by a 
colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member of the sen- 
tence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the following 
clause ; and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete 
without the concluding one 3 as in the following instance : " As the desire of 
approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of 
our species in every thin"" that is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to 
them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 



OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connect- 
ed than those which are separated by a semicolon 3 but not so independent as 
separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three following cases : — 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some 
supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject 5 as, " Nature felt 
her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt : the gospel 
reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is 
necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment ; as, " A 
divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty Governor, 
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest 
prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting 
the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the world, which 
support integrity, and check guilt." 

3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech 
is introduced ; as, " The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
Deity, in these words : ' God is love.' 



7 }? 



OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in con 
struction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period. 

44 The most obvious remedy is to withdraw from all and what is the rule for it ? " He feared want hence 
associations wi!h bad men." Will you state how this he overvalued riches." Will you state how this sen 
sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it? tence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? 
"Vices like shadows towards the evening of life p-nw When is the semicolon used? When is the co- 
great and monstrous." Will you give the rule for Ion used ? In what three cases may the colon be 
pointing this sentence, and apply it? " F-om law properly applied ? 

arises security from security curiosity from curiosity When is the period used? After abbreviated words 

knowledge. " How should this sentence be pointed, what point should be used ? Give examples. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word : as, M. S., P. S«, 
N. B., A. D. ; O. S., N. S., &c. 

THE DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers 
may be introduced with propriety where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; 
where a significant pause is required 3 or where there is an unexpected turn in 
the sentiment j as, " If thou art he, so much respected once— but, oh ! how 
fallen ! how degraded !" 

INTERROGATION. 

A Note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence : 
that is, when a question is asked 5 as, " Who will accompany me V 7 " Shall 
we always be friends V 7 



EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, sur- 
prise, joy, grief, &c, and also to invocations or addresses 3 as, " My friend . 
this conduct amazes me V 7 " Bless the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all 
his benefits {" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their 
quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon, 
a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation ot 
the voice. 

PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or useful 
remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be 
omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; as, 

" Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue, alone, is happiness below." 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be ac- 
companied with every point which the sense would require if the parenthetical 
characters were omitted. 



I 



Directions respecting the Use of CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to beg ; n with a capital, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, not , or any other piece of 
writing. 

2. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are totally inde- 
pendent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity 5 as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, tho 
Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships ; as, 
George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places 5 as, Grecian, 
Roman, English, French, Italian, &c. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a 
direct form 5 as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' M 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital. 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books 3 as, Johnson's 
Dictionary of the English Language 3 Thomson's Seasons. 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun 7 and the interjection O are written in capitals. 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they 
are rema rkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 

When may the dash be introduced with propriety ? tion points determinate as to their quantity or time ? 

" Who will accompany me ? s What point should be What is a parenthesis ? Give an example in which 

used at the end of this sentence ? it is used with propriety. Should the voice be elevat 

To what is the note of exclamation applied ? Give ed or depressed in pronouncing a parenthesis ? 

an example. Are the exclamation and interroga When should capital letters be used ? 



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